20. Prosodic peculiarities of formal and informal speech.

1. The English sound system. Principles of classification of vowels.

Phonetics is a discipline of linguistics that focuses on the study of the sounds used in speech.Vowel is a sound when the air stream has no obstruction on its during of articulation.Vowels are classified according to tongue position(horizontal(fully front v-s[e,i:],front retreated v-s[i],mixed v-s[ə],back advanced v-s[u:],back v-s) & vertical(close[u:][i:][i][u],mid-open[e],open[a:][ æ])),lip position(labialized[u:][ ɔ:],non-labialized[ɜ͟:]), length(short & long), the degree of tenseness, the stability of articulation(monophtong[u],diphthong[au],diphtongoid[i:][u:]).

2. The English sound system Principles of classification of consonants

Phonetics is a discipline of linguistics that focuses on the study of the sounds used in speech.Consonant is a sound when the air stream has obstruction on its during of articulation.Consonants are classified according to:

1.type of obstruction & kind of noise:occlusive(plosive[p][b] & nasal[m][n][l]), constrictive(fricative[f][v] & sonant[j][w]), affricates[tS][dз]

2.the work of active organ of speech & place of obstruction: fore lingual(apical-alveolar[t][d], apical-dental[Ө],curcuminal[r]),medio lingual(palatal), back lingual(velar[ŋ], glottal[h])

3.labio-dental[t][v] & bilabial[b][p]

4.the work of vocal cords & the force of articulation(lenis[b][d] & fortis [p][f])

14. Classification of Basic Intonation Patterns.

All the basic intonation patterns can be contrasted to one another both inform and meaning. The basic intonation patterns are associated with a complete communicative unit. The notion of a basic pattern refers to a simple tune functioning within an independent utterance.In the description of the English intonation system intonation patterns are traditionally presented as pitch-patterns, or contours. Pitch features are inseparable from stress and from rhythm. Stress influences the speed of utterance and is itself influenced by the tempo of speech.

The Basic int.patterns are divided into: the rising tone-pattern, the falling tone-pattern, the falling-rising tone-pattern and the rising-falling to ne-pattern.Within each of the four tone patterns there is a further division in accordance with the accepted functional variation of the nuclear tones.Each tone pattern is realized in a number of tunes. The most important subdivision is into tunes having a head and those without a head.

15. The principles of dividing utterances into intonation groups

Analysis of English utterances into intonation-groups shows that they are co-extensive with a stretch of speech of various grammatical nature: an independent sentence, a principal or a subordinate clause, two or even more clauses, a group of words or even one word. An intonation-group corresponding to a grammatical sentence is marked by specific characteristics of tone, stress and duration, serving to express semantic completeness and independence -the relevant features of an utterance. An intonation-group of this kind is defined as a simple tune. Utterances which are composed of more than one intonation-croup form a combined tune. Their division is based both on physiological convenience on the complexity of information. Prosodic division is typically optional in expanded simple sentences with adverbial modifiers of different kinds, complex sentences with object, relative or attributive clauses and some others. An intonation boundary is obligatory highly probable in complex sentences with subordinate clauses of condition, cause, time concession, result, comparison and some others. The choice of a number of intonation-groups in an utterance also depends on the type and form of speech.

16. The notion of a supraphrasal unity its prosodic features

The unit coming next to an utterance in the above-mentioned hierarchy is a supraphrasal unity (SPU).

There arc constant prosodic markers distinguishing initial, median and final phrases in the unity. These are the features of pitch , loudness and tempo An important feature marking the boundary of a supraphrasal unity is a pause which is considerably longer than any of the pauses separating the phrases within the unity. It is the so-called three-unit pause.The degree of semantic completeness of the utterances within a supraphrasal unity is reflected in the degree of finality of its nuclear tone. The last utterance in a unity normally has a falling nuclear tone with the lowest ending point while the fall in the non-final phrases doesn't doesn't generally reach the bottom of the voice-range.

17. The system & sphere of usage of emphatic static & kinetic tones

Emphatic tones are used in speech for two main purposes: 1) to increase the semantic prominence of separate words in an utterance or that of an entire utterance; 2) to attach an emotional colouring to an utterance. Emphatic tones are modifications, or variants, of basic kinetic and static tones. Emphasis applied to a tone increases the force of articulation on the syllable carrying the tone and the effect of loudness. It also changes the pitch characteristics, moving the upper point of a kinetic tone upward and the lower point of it downward, thus widening the interval of the pitch-change. In the case of a static tone emphasis displaces the 'normal' pitch-height of the tone upwards or downwards.

A. The Use of Emphatic Static Tones

Emphasis on t h e onset of a high rising tune makes the question sound rhetorical. Emphasis on the onset syllable of a falling tune enhances the energetic character of a statement, command or exclamation. When the onset syllable of a low rising tune is made emphatic a note of impatience is suggested to an utterance.

B. Emphasis on Kinetic Nuclear Tones

The Emphatic High Rise is most commonly used in General questions to express extreme surprise or a shocked reaction. The Emphatic Low Rise is used in various types of utterances. In Statements and Imperatives this tone is often preceded by a low-pitched head and expresses a feeling of irritation, dissatisfaction. General and Special questions with an Emphatic Low Rise, preceded by a high-pitched lead convey a meaning of extreme surprise and incredulity. When a low-pitched head is pronounced before an Emphatic Low Rise the question acquires a note of antagonism and impatience.The Emphatic Fall gives an utterance an energetic note and imparts additional modal connotations, which depend on the communicative type of the utterance. Thus, Statements pronounced with an Emphatic Fall sound very categoric and decisive.Special questions with an Emphatic Fall sound insistent or contrastive.Imperatives and exclamations with an Emphatic Fall sound strong and enthusiastic.

18. Irregular preheads. Stress reduction. Nuclear tone-shift.

Irregular Prehead is a displacement in pitch from the normal position in the lower half or near the middle of the voice-range. The displacement can be made both upward and downward - High Irregular and Low Irregular Preheads. In the High Irregular Prehead all the syllables are said on a very high pitch. In the Low Irregular Prehead all the syllables are said on a very low pitch. The exact modal-emotional meaning of an utterance with the High Irregular Prehea. depends on the nuclear tone. In tunes with the nuclear Emphatic Mid/Low Fall the High Irregular Prehead is used to express disapproval, indignation or insistence.In tunes with the emphatic Low Rise nuclear tone the High Irregular Prehead after. adds a feeling of disagreement and impatience.When followed by the emphatic High Rise the High Irregular Prehead gives a feeling of extreme surprise.

When you desire to reinforce the semantic weight of the nuclear word it can be done a) by reducing or eliminating the prenuclear stresses, thus giving the nucleus greater relative b) by using the so-called nuclear tone-shift, which means displacing the nuclear tone from its normal position - on the last notional word in an utterance - to a word at the beginning or in the middle of it. The effect of a departure from final position is that of special semantic prominence or contrast.The effect of a contrastive tone-shift is always greater when the nuclear stress is given to a function word or a pronoun.Nuclear shifts are often combined with emphasis witch increases the prominence of the word.

19. The expressive potential of compound tunes

Intonation-groups having more than one kinetic tone are called compound tunes. The intonation-groups are not split into as many smaller groups as there are prenuclear kinetic tones in them. This can be explained by the absence of a pause after the prenuclear kinetic tones. There are some peculiarities in the pitch and duration features of these tones which mark them as non-final accents closely linked within one unit - an intonation-group. the Ascending Head=the Low Rise + High Fall compound tune, the Sliding Head=the Fall + Fall compound tune, the Scandent Head=the Rise + Rise compound tunes. The most common types of compound tunes are: High Rise + High Rise(This compound tune typically occurs in general questions. It gives them a feeling of surprise or incredulity), Low Rise + Fall(It usually gives a feeling of: a) mystification and puzzlement to questions; b) persuasiveness and expostulation to statements and imperatives; c) wonderment to exclamations.), Fall + Fall-Rise(It usually serves to give special emphasis to some word; a more apologetic note in statements), Fall-Rise + Fall(It serves to emphasize and often to give a sense of contrast to some word (words) coming earlier than the nucleus.), Fall + Fall(gives emphasis to or expresses a contrast; a) insistence to special and general questions; b) dogmatism to statements; c) energy to imperatives; d) extra emphasis to exclamations).

20. Prosodic peculiarities of formal and informal speech.

Prosodic characteristics regard the basic intonation contours as such as a norm. The peculiarity of each of the styles might then be seen in two ways: 1) as statistical preference of some of the pattern in comparison with the others; 2) as modifications, or deviations, from the 'normal' characteristics of the basic patterns. O f f i с i a l, and public speaking will obviously be louder and slower, more careful, distinct and tense in articulation than informal familiar speech. This seems to be a universal phonetic characteristic of the given stylistic varieties. Informal speech reveals an opposite tendency: to make frequent use of only a small number of basic prosodic configurations. In other words, within any given stretch of utterance very little actually occurs.