19/ Old engl written records

The reason that we know so little about the linguistic situation in this period is because we do not have much in the way of written records from any of the Germanic languages of north-western Europe until several centuries later.When Old English writings began to appear in the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries; there is a good deal of regional variation, but not substantially more than that found in later periods. This was the language that Alfred the Great referred to as "English" in the ninth century.The Celts were already living in Britain when the Anglo-Saxons arrived, but there are few obvious traces of their language in English today.Some scholars have suggested that the Celtic tongue might have had an underlying influence on the grammatical development of English, particularly in some parts of the country, but this is highly speculative.The number of loanwords known for certain to have entered Old English from this source is very small. Those which survive in modern English include brock (badger), and coomb (a type of valley), plus many place names.

20. the adjective.weak and strong declanation

In grammar, an adjective is a word whose main syntactic role is to modify a noun or pronoun, giving more information about the noun or pronoun's referent. Collectively, adjectives form one of the traditional English eight parts of speech, though linguists today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners that also used to be considered adjectives.

Not all languages have adjectives, but most, including English, do. (English adjectives include big, old, and tired, among many others.) Those that do not, typically use words of another part of speech, often verbs, to serve the same semantic function; Even in languages that do have adjectives, one language's adjective might not be another's;

In most languages with adjectives, they form an open class of words; that is, it is relatively common for new adjectives to be formed via such processes as derivation

In many languages, attributive adjectives usually occur in a specific order. Generally, the adjective order in English is;

article or pronouns used as adjectives

intensifier

quality

size

age

color

participle

proper adjective

noun used as adjectives

headnoun

21. consonants.proto-germ consonant shift

Grimm's law (also known as the First Germanic Sound Shift is a set of statements describing the inherited Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stops as they developed in Proto-Germanic in the 11HYPERLINK "st_millennium_BC%221st%20millennium%20BC"st millennium BC. It establishes a set of regular correspondences between early Germanic stops and fricatives and the stop consonants of certain other centum Indo-European languages (Grimm used mostly Latin and Greek for illustration). As it is presently formulated, Grimm's Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in the sense of a chain shift[1]:

Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops change into voiceless fricatives.

Proto-Indo-European voiced stops become voiceless stops.

Proto-Indo-European voiced aspirated stops become voiced fricatives; ultimately, in most Germanic languages these voiced fricatives become voiced stops.