Vocatives (also see Arakin, p.419)

A vocative at the beginning of an utterance is accented and normally has its own IG, thus becoming nuclear.

A final vocative is usually not accented but attached to the preceding IG as part of the tail.

DIVISION INTO INTONATION GROUPS (CHUNKING)

The intonation structure reflects the grammatical structure. The boundary between two successive intonation groups (GP) generally corresponds to a syntactic (grammatical) boundary.

We regularly place a pause between successive sentences, usually between successive clauses, sometimes between successive phrases and occasionally between successive words.

E.g. Milk comes from cows. Wool comes from sheep.

Milk comes from cows and wool comes from sheep.

Milk comes from cows.

Thus, division into IGs plays a role similar to the role of punctuation in writing. However, the two do not always go in parallel. There are many cases where a punctuation mark is used, but a pause is optional or even unlikely. In particular, such words as “well, yes, no, oh” at the beginning of a sentence are not usually followed by a pause in speech.

E.g. Oh, I quite understand.

Well, I am not sure.

No, I love it.

Some of the final adverbials are preceded by a comma in writing, but have no pause in speech: “then, though, even, you know”.

E.g. We’ll see you on Tuesday, then.

Her health is pretty poor, you know. [Ex.4.1.1, p.190]

Choosing The Size Of The Chunk

Each IG presents one piece of information. The speaker has to break the message up into chunks of information and has considerable freedom of choice in how to do so.

Typically, an IG lasts for about one or two seconds. An utterance in a conversation may consist of one or many Igs.

The chunks also reflect the speaker’s decisions about focus. Each IG covers a single focus domain (culminating in the nucleus) and the associated out-of-focus material. The size of an IG is linked to the decisions the speaker makes about how many words, and therefore how many syllables to accent. An IG usually contains only one or two accents (onset and nucleus); less commonly, it may have three accents, and rather rarely four (five is an absolute upper limit).

Igs tend to be longer and have more accents in scripted material and in material read aloud. This may be because the IG is not only basic chunk for intonation purposes but also the basic chunk for mental planning. In our minds as we speak we plan one IG at a time. Reading from a script, we can look ahead and plan ahead; in ordinary conversation we may not have decided what we are going to say until just before we say it.

Chunking thus varies considerably according to the style of speech. [Ex.4.2.1., p.192]

Chunking And Grammar

The speaker has considerable discretion over the size and therefore the number of Igs into which to divide the spoken message. Nevertheless, there are some strong tendencies exerted by the grammar over chunking. Some components of syntactic structure are more likely than others to be made into separate Igs, set off by pauses.

First, there is normally a pause at every sentence boundary. This is a major pause (//), more important than the pauses within a sentence (/).

A second basic rule is that each clause tends to be said as a separate IG. So if a sentence consists of several clauses, there will usually be a pause at each clause boundary.

E.g. When I COUGH / it hurts my THROAT.//

First take the LID off / and then unscrew the BASE.//

In general, the speaker can insert a pause anywhere where it will make the grammatical structure clear, as a pause signals a boundary between syntactic constituents.

If a new sentence involves a change of grammatical subject, the subject (particularly if it is not a pronoun) tends to have its own IG.

E.g. We’ll arrive at about TEN. // The CHILdren / can come along LATer //

There is usually a pause between coordinate clauses.

E.g. He turned ROUND / and a strange SIGHT confronted him.//

If the subject of coordinate clauses is ellipted, there is usually no pause.

E.g. She was SITting and THINKing.//

Where the object or some other complement is ellipted, again, there is usually no pause after the first verb, providing the subject is unchanged.

E.g. Peter likes and TRUSTS him //

In coordinate clauses with different subjects and verbs but an elliptical object a pause after each of the verbs is compulsory.

E.g. Mary’s prepARED / and we’ve all just EATen / a delicious MEAL //

Simple structures are usually said as a simple IG. [Ex.4.3.1., p.194]

VOCATIVES

Vocatives are not an essential part of the clause structure. This explains why under some circumstances they are given their own IG. Vocatives are treated differently depending on where they come.

In initial position they tend to form a separate IG.

E.g. LINda,/ could I have a word?//

Jenny and PETer / I want you to take the LEFT side //

When not initial, they are usually attracted to what precedes, forming part of the tail of the IG.

E.g. Don’t DO it, Mrs Worthington//

In greetings a final vocative often has its own IG. [Ex. 4.4.1., p 196]

ADVERBIALS

Adverbials often stand apart from the basic clause structure, as the clause would be grammatically complete without them. This explains why they are frequently given their own IG.

Their behaviour varies depending on their relationship with the rest of the clause.

Ordinary adverbs and adverbials – those that modify the verb or an ajective are typically not given their own IG.

E.g. She quickly picked up the PENcil.//

We were really PLEASed with it.//

However, adverbials at the beginning of the clause are usually followed by a pause and thus form a separate IG.

E.g. Under the CIRcumstances / we’ve got no CHOICE.//

TECHnically / we have to reJECT it.//

UnFORtunately / we are not going to MAKE it.//

In the middle of a clause, an adverbial is often a kind of parenthesis. It may have its own IG with pauses before and after.

E.g. Well we COULD, / THIS year / do something DIFferent.//

The REST of us, / unFORtunately,/ will have to acCEPT it.//

Adverbs at the end of a clause may be adverbs of manner that modify the verb and thus be integrated closely into the clause structure. In keeping with the general rule that the nucleus goes on the last in-focus lexical item, such adverbs tend to bear the nucleus.

E.g. She dances BEAUTifully.//

I’ll pay you back SOON.//

Sentence adverbials that modify the whole clause or sentence, typically have their own IG.

E.g. ApPARently,/ she’s getting diVORced//

I’m rather disapPOINted,/ FRANCly.// [Ex.4.5.2., p.197]

HEAVY NOUN PHRASES

A noun phrase is likely to have its own IG if it is long, consisting of several words. Since the grammatical subject of a sentence is often just such a noun phrase, there is often a pause between the subject and the rest of the clause or sentence.

E.g. The head of a large SCHOOL / has a lot of responsiBILity//.

The people I’ve been TALKing to / were quite DEFinite about it.//

A separate IG for the subject of the clause is more frequently found in reading aloud and in formal speeches. Making the subject noun phrase into a separate IG has an advantage of allowing the speaker to place contrastive focus on it by locating a nucleus there.

E.g. Cats and DOGS / can make WONderful companions.// [Ex.4.6.2., p,198]

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING

There are two kinds of relative clause: defining and non-defining. The first type usually does not have its own IG, the second does.

E.g. She’s my sister who lives in CANada.// (I have more than one sister).

She’s my SISter / who lives in CANada.//(My only sister).

Defining relative clauses are much more frequent in conversation than non-defining ones.

In typical cases such as following, there is no pause before the defining relative clause.

E.g. Where’s that PEN I was using?//

PARALLEL STRUCTURES (also see ARAKIN, p.434)

With parallel words or phrases there is likely to be a pause after each component if there are more than two components or if the components are heavy.

E.g.

I’ll come in on MONdays / WEDnessdays/ and FRIdays.//

If the parallel words or phrases are placed in contrast by the speaker, then they are likely to be separated by a pause.

E.g. I’m not going to repeat the mistake I made LAST time / THIS time.//

TAG-QUESTIONS (also see ARAKIN, p. 365)

Tag-questions tend to have their own IG. This applies particularly to reverse-polarity tags.

E.g. We could do it toMORrow,/ COULDN’t we?//

In contrast polarity tags it is usual for the tag not to have its own IG.

E.g. You are READy to go, are you.

ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS (see ARAKIN, p. 344)

KEY

As well as the pitch movement within each IG, we need also to consider the general pitch characteristics of longer stretches of speech. The pitch range – the distance between the top and the baseline – is not fixed. We constantly readjust our pitch range and in doing so convey information about the structure of the discourse.

HIGH key involves an abrupt upward shift of the pitch range.

LOW key involves an abrupt downward shift.

One use of key is to signal the structure of spoken material. Anew item is signaled by HIGH key:

The first accent is relatively high- pitched in comparison with the end of the item that preceded it. There is then a descent in general pitch level with a low-pitched finish to the item. Just as a written passage can be divided into paragraphs, so the passage of speech can be divided into PARATONES.

The universal tendency of gradual pitch declination affects not only successive high points within an IG, but also successive IGs within a paratone.

You can hear paratone structure in any kind of monologue. Each time the speaker starts a new section – to embark on a new topic or make a new point – the new paratone is signaled by HIGH key.