The Reforms of Alexander II

In 1853-56 the Crimean War occurred between Russia on one side and the allied forces of England, Turkey, France, and Sardinia on the other side. The war clearly showed the backwardness of the Russian Empire compared to England and France. Russia’s military equipment was obsolete; communication systems and bureaucracy were inefficient. Russia also lacked railroads and steamers. It was clear now that radical reforms were needed. Frustrated by the humiliated defeat Tsar Nikolai I died in 1855.² The new emperor Alexander II started an ambitious program of wide-scale reforms.

In 1861 serfdom was abolished as it was the main obstacle for the development of capitalism. Compulsory labor was never efficient. Freed peasants could now be hired at factories and plants which needed them badly, or become independent farmers.

In 1864 the judicial reform was carried out. Everybody became equal before the law. The courts became independent from state administration. Judges were elected now rather than appointed. The institutions of juries and attorneys were introduced. Legal proceedings became open for public. The judicial reform made people feel more secure about their businesses and careers and stimulated their activity.

The same year the so-called zemstvo reform was implemented. It meant that rural regions (povity) got the right to a limited self-government which made them more flexible and efficient for the development of capitalism and improvement of local living conditions. Zemstva built many schools, hospitals, roads, etc.

In 1870 cities got the right to self-rule. The most capable city-dwellers could be elected now to city councils, called dumas.

The educational reform (1864) introduced a single system of primary education, improved the system of secondary schools, and granted autonomy to universities. As a result of the reform the masses got broader access to education.

The military reform (1864-1883) established a universal military service (6 years in ground forces and 7 years in the navy) for men over 20. The nobility retained the right not to serve in the army. Before the reform the soldiers served for 25 years. The army was rearmed. Corporal punishments were abolished.

The reforms stimulated the socio-economic modernization of the Russian Empire; promoted the democratization of society and education; enforced the rule of law. Industry and trade started to grow rapidly, urbanization increased sharply, many peasants became hired workers. The reforms opened the way for the establishment of industrial society.

Ukraine’s Economic Development

The reforms of Alexander II gave a strong impetus to Ukraine’s economic development. The railway network connected all important industrial and political centers. Numerous plants and factories appeared in Eastern and Southern Ukraine. Especially powerful was the Donbass fuel and industrial region. Coal production here had risen by 100 times from 1861 till 1900. By the turn of the century the Donetsk-Kryvyi Rih industrial region had surpassed the Ural industrial region (the major industrial base in Russia) in output. While the Ural metallurgical plants enhanced their production by 4 times from 1870 till 1900, the Donetsk-Kryvyi Rih plants – by 158 times for the same period. This industrial region became the biggest in the Russian Empire. Gigantic military and locomotive plants were created in Luhansk. Another enormous locomotive plant was built in Kharkiv. Large shipbuilding industries were created in Kherson and Mykolaiv. In the 1890s Kyiv could boast about 8 industrial plants. Odesa became the most profitable port in the Russian Empire.³ Ukrainian plants and factories were furnished with the newest equipment from abroad. Labor efficiency (продуктивність праці) of the Ukrainian metallurgical worker was six times higher than that of the metallurgical worker in the Ural industrial region.

The wages in Ukraine were quite significant compared to those in Russia. Donbass miners’ wages were twice as much as in Russia (425 rubles a year to 204 rubles a year). On average, wages in Ukrainian plants and factories were at least by 15% higher than in Russia. Besides, the prices of food and dwelling in Ukraine were significantly lower than in Russia. The climate was also better. That is why many Russians came to Eastern Ukraine to work at plants, factories, and mines. In present-day Ukraine the descendants of the 19^th century Russian workers comprise a significant part of the population. In 1913 Ukraine gave 25 percent of the empire’s industrial output.

The nineteenth-century Ukraine could boast not only about the modern industrial base, but about rather efficient agriculture as well. Ukraine’s agricultural products were in great demand not only in Russia but also in Europe. For example, Ukraine produced 90% of the empire’s grain export and 65% of sugar export.⁴ Ukraine had over 150 sugar plants where 85% of the empire’s sugar was produced. In fact, Ukraine became the world sugar trade center. The grain export was the basic source of foreign currency the Russian Empire needed to purchase machinery abroad and to accumulate capital for further industrial investment at home. Ninety percent of grain trade was concentrated in the hands of Jewish merchants. In general, Ukraine produced 20% of the world’s wheat and was often called the breadbasket of Europe. Ukraine also produced a great amount of meat, dairy products, tobacco, and various vegetables. At the turn of the century Ukraine played an important role in European trade, and also greatly benefited from having access to the enormous market of the Russian empire.

The population of Ukraine grew rapidly in the second half of the 19^th century due to improved living conditions and absence of contraception. At the end of the century a typical Ukrainian family had on average 7-8 children who usually survived into adulthood thanks to better nourishment and medical care. By the turn of the century the peasants had formed about 84% of Ukraine’s population. In cities Ukrainians formed only about 30 percent (in Kyiv – 22%, in Odesa – 5%). The biggest cities were Odessa (400,000), Kyiv (250,000), Kharkiv (175,000), and Katerynoslav (115,000). The city dwellers were mostly Russians and Jews. (In Austrian part of Ukraine city dwellers were mostly Poles, Jews and Germans). Jews and Russians also dominated business. Only 9% of the business class were Ukrainians. Ukrainians were traditionally tied to land and did not want to go to cities. Thus, only 25% of miners and 30% of metallurgical workers were Ukrainians, the rest were Russians; even at sugar plants of Right-Bank Ukraine Russians made up 50% of the workforce. Jews were usually engaged in business and finance activities. They refused the governmental proposal to take lands in Southern Ukraine for cultivation and become farmers. Many Jews also worked in such ‘liberal’ professions as law and medicine. Jewish activity was restricted by Ukrainian territory (the so-called Pale of Settlement); it was not allowed for the Jews to settle in Russia.