7.Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. Where and when was the first nuclear power plant built?

2. Who made a great contribution into the development of NPPs?

3. How many items does “Atommash” produce?

4. What does Manufacturing Division 1 consist of?

5. How much reactor equipment does the plant produce annually?

6. What types of quality control are used at “Atommash”?

7. What have the engineers of the plant developed recently?

8.Составьте аннотацию к тексту (2-3 предложения).

9. Составьте реферат текста (10-15 предложений).

10.Составьте план текста и перескажите текст. Вариант 4

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст:

Max Planck

Max Planck made many contributions to theoretical physics, but his fame rests primarily on his role as originator of the quantum theory. This theory revolutionized our understanding of atomic and subatomic processes, just as Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity revolutionized our understanding of space and time.

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was the sixth child of a distinguished jurist and professor of law at the University of Kiel. When Planck was nine years old, his father received an appointment at the University of Munich, and Planck entered the city’s renowned Maximilian Gymnasium, where a teacher, Hermann Müller, stimulated his interest in physics and mathematics.

Planck deliberately decided to become a theoretical physicist at a time when theoretical physics was not yet recognized as a discipline in its own right. The first instance of an absolute in nature that impressed Planck deeply, even as a Gymnasium student, was the law of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. Later, during his university years, he became equally convinced that the entropy law, the second law of thermodynamics, was also an absolute law of nature. The second law became the subject of his doctoral dissertation at Munich, and it lay at the core of the researches that led him to discover the quantum of action, now known as Planck’s constant h, in 1900.

In 1859–60 Kirchhoff had defined a blackbody as an object that reemits all of the radiant energy incident upon it; i.e., it is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. There was, therefore, something absolute about blackbody radiation, and by the 1890s various experimental and theoretical attempts had been made to determine its spectral energy distribution—the curve displaying how much radiant energy is emitted at different frequencies for a given temperature of the blackbody. Planck was particularly attracted to the formula found in 1896 by his colleague Wilhelm Wien, and he subsequently made a series of attempts to derive “Wien’s law” on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. By October 1900, however, the experimentalists Otto Richard Lummer, Ernst Pringsheim, Heinrich Rubens, and Ferdinand Kurlbaum, had found definite indications that Wien’s law, while valid at high frequencies, broke down completely at low frequencies.

Planck learned of these results just before a meeting of the German Physical Society on October 19. He knew how the entropy of the radiation had to depend mathematically upon its energy in the high-frequency region if Wien’s law held there. He also saw what this dependence had to be in the low-frequency region in order to reproduce the experimental results there. Planck guessed, therefore, that he should try to combine these two expressions in the simplest way possible, and to transform the result into a formula relating the energy of the radiation to its frequency.

The result, which is known as Planck’s radiation law, was hailed as indisputably correct. That was the task to which Planck immediately directed his energies, and by December 14, 1900, he had succeeded—but at great cost. To achieve his goal, Planck found that he had to relinquish one of his own most cherished beliefs, that the second law of thermodynamics was an absolute law of nature. Instead he had to embrace Ludwig Boltzmann’s interpretation, that the second law was a statistical law. In addition, Planck had to assume that the oscillators comprising the blackbody and re-emitting the radiant energy incident upon them could not absorb this energy continuously but only in discrete amounts, in quanta of energy; only by statistically distributing these quanta, each containing an amount of energy hν proportional to its frequency, over all of the oscillators present in the blackbody could Planck derive the formula he had hit upon two months earlier. He adduced additional evidence for the importance of his formula by using it to evaluate the constant h  as well as the so-called Boltzmann constant, Avogadro’s number, and the charge of the electron. As time went on physicists recognized ever more clearly that—because Planck’s constant was not zero but had a small but finite value—the microphysical world, the world of atomic dimensions, could not in principle be described by ordinary classical mechanics. A profound revolution in physical theory was in the making.

Planck’s concept of energy quanta, in other words, conflicted fundamentally with all past physical theory. In 1905, independently of Planck’s work, Einstein argued that under certain circumstances radiant energy itself seemed to consist of quanta (light quanta, later called photons), and in 1907 he showed the generality of the quantum hypothesis by using it to interpret the temperature dependence of the specific heats of solids. In 1909 Einstein introduced the wave–particle duality into physics. In October 1911 he was among the group of prominent physicists who attended the first Solvay conference in Brussels. The discussions there stimulated Henri Poincare to provide a mathematical proof that Planck’s radiation law necessarily required the introduction of quanta.

Planck was 42 years old in 1900 when he made the famous discovery that in 1918 won him the Nobel Prize for Physics and that brought him many other honours. It is not surprising that he subsequently made no discoveries of comparable importance. Nevertheless, he continued to contribute at a high level to various branches of optics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, physical chemistry, and other fields.

In his later years, Planck devoted more and more of his writings to philosophical, aesthetic, and religious questions. Together with Einstein and Schrödinger, he remained adamantly opposed to the indeterministic, statistical worldview introduced by Bohr, Max Born, Werner Heisenberg, and others into physics after the advent of quantum mechanics in 1925–26. Such a view was not in harmony with Planck’s deepest intuitions and beliefs. Planck became permanent secretary of the mathematics and physics sections of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1912 and held that position until 1938; he was also president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (now the Max Planck Society) from 1930 to 1937. These offices and others placed Planck in a position of great authority, especially among German physicists; seldom were his decisions or advice questioned. His authority, however, stemmed fundamentally not from the official appointments he held but from his personal moral force. His fairness, integrity, and wisdom were beyond question. It was completely in character that Planck went directly to Hitler in an attempt to reverse Hitler’s devastating racial policies and that he chose to remain in Germany during the Nazi period to try to preserve what he could of German physics.

2. Переведите на русский язык следующие английские сочетания:

1. quantum theory

2.  conservation of energy

3. quantum of action

4. in quanta of energy

5. emitter and absorber of radiation

6.  Boltzmann constant

7. wave–particle duality

8. comparable importance

9. indeterministic

10. moral force

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний:

1. субатомные процессы

2. слава в основном лежит

3. в равной степени убежден

4. первый закон термодинамики

5. докторская диссертация

6. излучение абсолютно черного тела

7. энергия излучения

8. спектральное распределение энергии

9. заряд электрона

10. корпускулярно-волновой дуализм

4. Найдите в тексте слова, имеющие общий корень с данными словами. Определите, к какой части речи они относятся, и переведите их на русский язык:

1. prerevolutionary

2. recognition

3. conservative

4. emition

5. indicator

6. depend

7. never

8. compared

9. worldwide

10. appoint

5. Задайте к выделенному в тексте предложению все типы вопросов (общий, альтернативный, разделительный, специальный: а) к подлежащему, б) к второстепенному члену предложения

6. Выполните анализ данных предложений, обратив внимание на следующие грамматические явления: косвенная речь в утвердительных, повелительных, вопросительных предложениях, согласование времен, повелительное наклонение, условные предложения, сослагательное наклонение 1 и 2 типов, конверсия:

1. Planck was particularly attracted to the formula found in 1896 by his colleague Wilhelm Wien, and he subsequently made a series of attempts to derive “Wien’s law” on the basis of the second law of thermodynamics.

2. Planck guessed, therefore, that he should try to combine these two expressions in the simplest way possible, and to transform the result into a formula relating the energy of the radiation to its frequency.

3. He adduced additional evidence for the importance of his formula by using it to evaluate the constant h  as well as the so-called Boltzmann constant, Avogadro’s number, and the charge of the electron.

4. He knew how the entropy of the radiation had to depend mathematically upon its energy in the high-frequency region if Wien’s law held there.

5. In 1905, independently of Planck’s work, Einstein argued that under certain circumstances radiant energy itself seemed to consist of quanta (light quanta, later called photons), and in 1907 he showed the generality of the quantum hypothesis by using it to interpret the temperature dependence of the specific heats of solids.

7. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту:

1. What is the main theory of Max Planck?

2. What is so remarkable in Planck’s decision to become a physicist?

3. When did Planck discover the constant h?

4. Why had numerous experiments been made about blackbody radiation?

5. How could Planck combine two expressions of Wien’s law?

6. What did he find out when he formulated the radiation law?

7. Did Planck win the Nobel Prize?

8. Составьте аннотацию к тексту (2-3 предложения).

9. Составьте реферат текста (10-15 предложений).

10.Составьте план текста и перескажите текст.