Communication and Cooperation

Decoder

•Just as the source requires an encoder to translate the purpose into a message, the receiver needs a decoder to retranslate the message and put it into a form that the receiver can use. We can look at the decoder as a set of sensory skills of the receiver.

Note: Should only the four most basic components be asked of students, these are:

•Source

•Message

•Channel

•Receiver

Types of Questions

Introduction

Questions not only beg information but can be used as a tool to confirm information. Questions, of course, can be moulded or loaded to anticipate an answer that is either desired or expected. For example: “do you find our newly redesigned seating comfortable?” invites an answer that is pleasing to the questioner. On the other hand “When you are smoking, do you always try and avoid causing discomfort to others?” places the weight of social expectation upon the responder. There are also ambiguous, imprecise or complex questions all of which have no place in good crew communications. Fundamentally there are three types of questions: leading, implicit and explicit questions.

Leading Questions

•These are questions where the required answer is in the question. The words “isn’t it” are often present - the classic student leading question during “mutual” flying......”That is Witney down there, isn’t it?” This type of question normally indicates a loss of situational awareness.

Implicit Questions (Open Questions)

•These require either a single or multiple deductions from the responder prior to his/her answer. For example a captain turns to his/her co-pilot and asks, “in view of the weather, what is the best course of action?” Before an answer is possible a number of factors must be considered by the co-pilot among which might be the:

•type, position and configuration of the aircraft.

•type and proximity of the weather.

•dangers that such weather might pose.

•aircraft fuel state.

•availability of ATC or airport facilities.

•qualifications of the aircrew etc.

The advantages of these type of questions are:

•A “second opinion” or group decision is brought into play thus probably improving the quality of the eventual conclusion.

•Normally more factors are investigated thereby reducing the chances of important considerations being overlooked.

13

Communication and Cooperation 13

Cooperation and Communication 13

•The deductions of the questioner are checked.

•Knowledge is extracted from the responder which can be assessed by the questioner. Because of this advantage the implicit question is widely utilized in teaching and instructing techniques.

The disadvantages are:

•The responder may not fully understand the implications of the question and consider irrelevant or, indeed, completely incorrect factors.

•Discussion may follow and thereby delay a conclusion.

•Discussion may divert attention from remaining focused on the main problem.

•They are prone to misunderstandings which may not be identified. i.e. sender and receiver may be talking at cross purposes.

•They are prone to diversions which may not be detected.

Explicit Questions (Closed Questions)

Explicit questions pose no such restrictions. They are straightforward and, if they do not require further clarification, assume that either the responder has (or can quickly obtain) all the information necessary to answer the question or that the question itself contains all the information essential for an informed response.

An example of an explicit question might be: “Are we maintaining the correct track?”

The advantages of explicit questions are:

•Question and response is normally quicker.

•The meaning of the question is usually clear.

•Both questioner and responder are on the “same wavelength”.

•Misunderstandings are quickly identified and clarified. The disadvantages are:

•Important factors may be overlooked and therefore not discussed.

•The assumption that the question contains enough information for an informed answer may be incorrect.

Communications Concepts

Communication Bits

Communications may be said to exist when information is passed from one individual, the transmitter, to another individual or group, the receiver(s). Information can only be considered to have been passed when the receiver’s uncertainty is reduced. Communications specialists measure information in bits, one bit being the quantity of information which reduces uncertainty in the receiver by 50%.

Communication Channels

Communication is the establishment of a relationship aimed at achieving an objective. It can, and does, consist of a number of different modes or ‘channels’ (for example: speech, gestures, writing). Although communication generally involves transmitting information, there will be circumstances when it may not necessarily pass information but simply serve to keep the channel open (to assure the receiver of a human presence).

Dialogue

A dialogue is a series of communications on the same subject between a transmitter and a receiver. It can be considered as a form of negotiation which progressively converges towards a common aim.

Hypertext

Hypertext is the set of implicit information contained in a written text or spoken message. For example the phrase ‘I would like to find a pub’ includes in the hypertext the ideas that the individual may be hungry or thirsty or, if out walking in cold rainy weather, that shelter and warmth would be welcome. If crawling along in a traffic jam the hypertext for the same phrase could include the need to find a telephone. It can be seen that hypertext for the same phrase can vary depending on the situation in which the phrase is used.

Good Communications

Confirmation of Information

Numerous experiments have been carried out in simulators to determine the effectiveness of air to ground communications. In summary the findings were that crews who reacted best to events were those who not only communicated among themselves but systematically confirmed reception of messages from ATC and other crew members. The crews which met with most problems were those which failed to communicate adequately, omitted to confirm messages received and allowed themselves to be interrupted without taking any special precautions. As an outcome to these experiments it has been proved that the non-confirmation of messages received can be the major cause of gradual deterioration in the pilot’s situational awareness.

Perceived Ability of the Receptor

The contents of the transmitter’s message will depend, to a great extent, on his image of the receiver. If the transmitter considers the receiver to be incompetent he will give much more detail, repeat messages and use many more gestures to facilitate understanding. This is similar to the way an adult would behave with a child who does not understand. If the transmitter considers his receiver to be competent he will shorten his phrases and go directly to the point, assuming that the other can easily understand any omissions.

When speaking to a foreign receiver the transmitter tends to repeat himself, reduce the rate of speech, simplify the language and use a restricted vocabulary. As a note of caution if one

Communication and Cooperation 13

Cooperation and Communication 13

attempts to reply with an excellent accent in a foreign country, this will immediately increase the complexity of the other party’s language and rate of speech.

In the cockpit, when one crew member does not seem to understand, the transmitter rarely retransmits the message in the same form. He/she may say it in another form and include more details. This tendency may eliminate much ambiguity from the dialogue, but communications may take much longer or the receiver may be distracted.

Personal Communications

Introduction

Relationships, both on and off the flight deck, are improved by the behaviour of individuals. The behaviour patterns may be classified as verbal, (our mode of communication with our voice) and non-verbal (sometimes known as ‘body language’). Successful communication is extremely difficult without these two factors playing their part.

Verbal Communications

Our verbal communications will employ varying patterns of speech in which we may change the pitch of our voice, stress some phrases, or insert pauses in the speech.

A rising voice and rapid speech may portray anxiety whilst short clipped speech may express urgency. Rambling speech usually indicates uncertainty. At the end of a meaningful sentence, dropping the voice, eye contact and possibly gestures are all cues to the completion of that speaker’s turn and that it is time for an input from another speaker.

The advantages of two-way communications over one-way communications are discussed in the CRM section of this course.

Non-verbal Communications (Body Language)

Eye contact, facial expression, body orientation, hand and head movements, and physical separation are all ways of communicating without speaking. Eye contact is usually very brief, except between the most intimate of friends. Prolonged staring is seen as threatening and should be avoided.

Facial expressions can convey a whole series of emotions: sadness, delight, disgust, contempt, boredom and many more. By observing the listener’s facial expression it soon becomes apparent that you may have lost their interest or perhaps are antagonising them.

Touch, except for a brief handshake, is not welcome in Western society, as one tends to be suspicious of someone who clings to your hand when introduced.

Posture and whole body movement is a guide to the listener’s interest. We tend to lean towards those with whom we agree and away from those we dislike. When bored we avoid even the briefest of eye contact or may display our disinterest by drumming fingers or playing with a pencil.

Culture and Body Language

The composition of aircrews is becoming more and more culturally mixed and it is essential that crews are aware of the cultural sensibilities of others. Body Language can lead to problems. What is acceptable or has a clear message in one culture can be deeply insulting or be meaningless in another.