- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
The fourth nounal opposition distinguishes between living beings — people and animals, on the one hand, and things, on the other, and thus is relevant within the classes of proper, common, concrete countables.
1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
This pair is the result of the division of animate nouns into those which are intended to name human beings or people and those that represent names of animals at large.
1.3.6. Gender
The opposition of human (person) and non-human (non-person) nouns is related to the further lexical division of human (person) nouns into those denoting male persons and those which name female persons. Both oppositions together constitute the lexical category of Gender which is realized by means of the three categorial forms: the neuter (i.e. non-human or non-person) gender, the masculine (i.e. masculine person) gender, the feminine (i.e. feminine person) gender.
Each opposition has its strong and weak members. The strong member of the first opposition is the class of human nouns with its semantic mark «person»: son, daughter, man, woman, bride, bridegroom, lord, lady, master, mistress, doctor, teacher, pupil, etc. The weak member is the class of non-human nouns which includes both animate nouns, i.e. collective nouns, names of animals and inanimate nouns, i.e. names of things, facts, abstract notions: crowd, government, organization, bear, wolf, hen, cock, cow, bull, book, love, fear, reading, and so on.
The strong member of the second opposition is traditionally considered to be the feminine gender while its weak member is the masculine gender. This may be accounted for by the fact that in English there exist a few pairs of person nouns like actor — actress, author — authoress, host — hostess, master — mistress, mayor — mayoress, peer — peeress, steward — stewardess, waiter — waitress in which the gender opposition is indicated grammatically: the feminine counterpart is marked by the suffix -ess, thus being its strong member. This type of
gender which is assigned to nouns as a constant may be called intrinsic. It may also be applied to such pairs as man — woman, lady — lord, bride — bridegroom, girl — boy, mother — father, brother — sister, son — daughter
and so on.
Yet on the whole, the category of Gender is semantic or lexical and expressed by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person: she — the feminine gender, he — the masculine gender, it — the neuter gender. Using another terminology this type of gender may be called referential for human beings are normally referred to as she or he, while animals and things as it. The only exceptions are the person nouns child and baby which are sometimes referred to as it.
The referential gender is typical of a great number of English person nouns which may be applied to both male and female persons: friend, neighbour, stranger, cousin, parent, teacher, student, doctor, writer, servant, taxpayer, clerk, etc. So their gender is specified either contextually or by means of compounds such as boy-friend, girlfriend, lady friend, lady doctor, lady writer, man-servant, maidservant, girl-student, woman-clerk.
Alongside of the gender distinctions described above there are some specific cases in English which need a particular consideration. First, sometimes in spoken language or literature there may be observed a tendency to associate the names of animals with the feminine or masculine gender. Nouns denoting them are characterized by the intrinsic feminine or masculine gender. On the one hand, there are some pairs of nouns like cow — bull, dog — bitch, mare — stallion, hen — cock. On the other hand,
the gender may be defined either with the help of the grammatical suffix -ess or by means of compounds: lion — lioness, tiger — tigress, he-wolf, she-wolf, he-bear, she-bear, male-elephant, female-elephant, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow, tom-cat, jenny-ass.
In fiction any animal may act as a person. In this respect smaller and weaker animals like hare, cat, parrot are normally associated with the feminine gender while bigger and stronger ones such as elephant, horse — with the masculine gender. Conversely, birds and sometimes insects irrespective their small size are usually viewed as male: canary, nightingale, swallow, fly.
Second, sometimes in spoken language and fiction inanimate things and abstract notions are personified, i.e. viewed as human beings, and thus nouns denoting them are referred to as either feminine or masculine. Thus, the names of vessels and vehicles or mechanisms are traditionally alluded to as belonging to the feminine gender: ship, boat, steamer, car, coach, carriage, engine, etc. For example: The Titanic is a British passenger ship, thought of as impossible to sink, which on her first trip in 1912 hit an iceberg and sank, causing over 1500 deaths.
Moon and earth are referred to as feminine, while sun as masculine: It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold, and the moon in her chariot of pearl. (O. Wilde)
The names of countries are conventionally viewed as feminine. For example: France is famous for her grapes, she can also grow peaches, pears and plums.
When abstract notions are personified the masculine gender is often ascribed to nouns with the general idea of strength (anger, death, fear war, hail) whereas the femi-
nine gender is normally related to the nouns expressing the idea of gentleness, charm (peace, kindness, beauty, spring, autumn, dawn).
To conclude: gender in English is a specific lexical (though with some elements of grammatical expression) category of nouns which can be expressed either intrinsically or referentially.