- •1.1. Definition
- •1.2. Morphological structure of nouns
- •1.3. Classes of nouns
- •1.3.1. Proper vs common nouns
- •1.3.2. Concrete vs abstract nouns
- •1.3.3. Countable vs uncountable nouns
- •1.3.4. Animate vs inanimate
- •1.3.5. Human (person) vs non-human (non-person)
- •1.3.6. Gender
- •1.3.7. Classes of nouns and grammatical categories of nouns
- •1.4. The category of Number
- •1.4.1. The productive way of the number formation
- •1.4.2. The non-productive ways of the number formation
- •1.5. The category of Case
- •1.5.1. Common Case: the syntactic functions of nouns
- •1.5.2. Possessive case
- •1. Write down the plurals of the following nouns and check their pronunciation in a dictionary where necessary:
- •2. Define the morphological structure of the italicized nouns in the texts given below:
- •3. Make up unstable compounds out of the following word-combinations:
- •4. Use the possessive case of the noun instead of the following word-combinations:
- •5. Analyse the italicized nouns in terms of classes and categories in the following extracts:
- •6. Translate the following sentences into English:
- •2.1. Definition
- •2.2. Functions of article
- •2.3. Article and pronoun
- •2.4. Indefinite article: usage
- •2.4.1. Indefinite article before common concrete nouns
- •2.5. Definite article: usage
- •2.5.7. Definite article before common nouns
- •2.5.2. Definite article before proper nouns
- •2.5.3. Definite article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.6. Zero article: usage
- •2.6.1. Zero article before common nouns
- •2.6.2. Zero article before proper nouns
- •2.6.3. Zero article in collocations and set expressions
- •2.7. Article determination of certain noun groups
- •1. Comment on the use of the italicized articles and nouns they determine in the extracts below:
- •2. Compare and explain the use of the italicized articles and nouns they specify in the following groups of sentences:
- •3. Insert proper articles where necessary into the texts below:
- •4. Translate the following texts into English using proper articles:
- •3.1. Definition
- •3.2. Morphological structure of adjectives
- •3.3. Classes of adjectives
- •3.3.1. Qualitative adjectives: the category of comparison
- •Inner — — innermost
- •3.4. Syntactic functions of adjectives
- •2. Give the opposites of the following adjectives by using the correct negative prefix:
- •3. Write down the comparative and superlative degrees of the following adjectives:
- •4. Define the class of the italicized adjectives and their syntactic function in the text given below:
- •5. Insert little or a little and define which part speech they belong to:
- •10. Complete the following with far/farther/farthest, further/furthest:
- •11. Put the words in brackets into the comparative forms:
- •4.1. Definition
- •4.2. Classes of pronouns
- •4.4. Possessive pronouns
- •4.5. Reflexive pronouns
- •4.6. Reciprocal pronouns
- •4.7. Demonstrative pronouns
- •4.8. Interrogative pronouns
- •4.9. Connective pronouns
- •4.9.1. Relative pronouns
- •4.9.2. Conjunctive pronouns
- •4.10. Indefinite pronouns
- •4.11. Defining pronouns
- •4.12. Negative pronouns
- •2. In these sentences change the definite article to the pronoun some and observe the difference in meaning:
- •3. Translate into English using some, any, someone, anyone, somebody, anybody, something, anything:
- •4. Give two English variants of each of the following sentences using the pronouns either and both:
- •11. Translate into English using where necessary that, who or what:
- •12. Translate into English using reflexive pronouns:
- •13. Translate into English using one, oneself, one's:
- •5.1. Definition
- •5.2. Classes of numerals
- •5.3. Morphological structure of numbers
- •5.4. Usage
- •5.4.1. Numerals proper
- •5.4.2. Noun-substitutes
- •5.4.3. Substantivized numerals
- •1. Answer the following questions using cardinals:
- •2. Translate into English using cardinals:
- •3. Translate into English using the words dozen, hundred, thousand, million in the proper form:
- •4. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •5. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •6. Translate into English using ordinals:
- •7. Translate into English using fractional numerals:
- •8. Read out the following extracts paying special attention to the italicised numerals:
- •6.1. Definition
- •6.2. Morphological structure of verbs
- •6.3. Finite vs non-finite forms
- •6.4. Syntagmatic functioning of verbs
- •6.5. Conjugation of verbs
- •6.6. Regular vs irregular verbs
- •6.7. Classes of verbs: functions
- •6.8. Be: functions
- •6.9. Have: functions
- •6.10. Do: functions
- •6.11. Shall: Junctions
- •6.12. Will: functions
- •6.13. Should: functions
- •6.14. Would: functions
- •6.15. Modals
- •6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
- •6.15.2. Modals expressing supposition
- •6.15.3, Modals expressing ability
- •6.75.4. Modals expressine permission.__requests,
- •6.15.5. Modals expressing willingness
- •6.15.6. Semi-defective verbs: need and dare
- •I 6.16. Meaningful verbs: grammatical categories
- •6.16.2. Category of Tense
- •6.16.3. Category of Taxis
- •6.16.4. Category of Aspect
- •6.16.5. Category of Voice
- •6.16.6. Category of Person
- •6.16.7. Category of Number
- •6.16.8. Category of Negation
- •6.16.9. Category of Interrogation
- •Is often a fine month, isn't it? — It isn't cold in October,
- •Is it? Leaves turn red and gold then, don't they? — The
- •I? You will be quick, won't you?
- •6.16.10. The Category of Expressivity
- •6.16.11. The category of Representation
- •6.17.1. Participle
- •6.17.2. Gerund
- •6.17.3. Infinitive
- •2. Define the syntagmatic characteristics of the italicized verbs in the following extracts:
- •3. Define the forms of conjugation of the italicized verbs below:
- •4. Comment upon the functions of be:
- •5. Comment upon the functions of have in the following extracts:
- •6. Comment upon the functions of do in the following extracts:
- •7. Define the meaning of the italicized modals in the extracts below:
- •8. Translate into English using modals of obligation:
- •9. Translate into English using modals of supposition:
- •10. Define the function of shall, will, should, would and the grammatical pattern in the following sentences:
- •11. Analyse the italicised verbal forms in terms of the grammatical categories:
- •12. Comment upon the forms of the participle and its syntactic functions:
- •13. Comment upon the forms of the gerund and its syntactic functions:
- •14. Comment upon the forms of the infinitive and its syntactic functions:
- •75. Define the grammatical status and the syntactic function of the italicised -ing forms in the following extracts:
- •16. State the grammatical status of verbals and their syntactic function in the following extracts:
- •17. Translate into English using the Complex Subject:
- •18. Translate into English using the Complex Object:
- •7.1. Definition
- •7.2. Morphological structure of adverbs
- •7.5.7. Adverbs denoting the quality of an action
- •7.5.2. Adverbs denoting circumstances
- •7.6. Syntactic functions of adverbs
- •1. Comment on the morphological status, lexical class and syntactic function of the italicized adverbs in the sentences below:
- •2. Choose the right word and define the part of speech it belongs to:
- •3. State whether the italicized words in the sentences below are adverbs or prepositions:
- •4. State whether the italicized forms below are prepositional or phrasal verbs:
6.15.1. Modals expressing obligation
There are 6 modals which express obligation: must, have to/have got to, be to, shall, should, ought to.
6.15.1.1. Must
Must expresses strong moral obligation, necessity, determination. For example: / must work. (=1 need to work. I am determined to work. Nobody makes me work.)
Grammatically must as a modal expressing obligation is the present tense form that has no counterparts in the past and future. Therefore the idea of must in those tenses is rendered by means of have to. She felt she had to have the air. We are sure we'll have to forgive him.
Note that in indirect speech must is used to refer an action to the past: The doctor told me I must stop smoking.
Must is always associated with the infinitive without to and has no -s suffix in the third person singular: This information must be given to the general public.
Must does not take any auxiliary to form a question or a negation. The negative forms of must are 1) must not/mustn't which expresses prohibition and 2) need not/ needn't that denotes unnecessary action. Compare: You mustn't smoke in the classroom. (=It is forbidden to smoke here.) — You needn't arrive at the airport till 10.30. (=It is unnecessary to arrive at the airport till 10.30.)
6.15.1.2. Have to/have got to "
Have to/have got to expresses obligation arising out of circumstances: / have to work now. I have got to go now. (= I am obliged to.) / had to get up early yesterday. I'll have to meet him at the station tomorrow.
Have always requires the infinitive with the particle to.
In the third person singular of the present tense have to is used in the form of has to: The work has to be done by tomorrow.
As a modal have to always takes the auxiliary do to form questions and negation.
Compare:
Do we have to stay after the classes? — No, you don't have to stay after the classes.
Have we got to stay after the classes? — No, you haven't got to stay after the classes.
Does she have to get to the airport in an hour? — No, she doesn 't have to get to the airport in an hour.
Has she got to get to the airport in an hour? — No, she hasn 't got to get to the airport in an hour.
Did they have to learn the poem by heart? — No, they didn 't have to learn the poem by heart.
6.15.1.3. Be to
Be to expresses obligation of a pre-planned character or mutual arrangement: She was to meet him at five o'clock sharp. The train is to arrive at nine o'clock p.m. We are to be married in June.
As a modal be always takes the infinitive with to.
In the third person singular of the present tense be is used in the form of is: The child is to be in bed at 8 о 'clock.
Be does not require do as an auxiliary to form questions and negative sentences. For example: She is not to be my friend. Was he to stay here for long?
6.15.1.4. Shall
Shall is used to express moral obligation, duty, command. For example: Shall I open the window? (= Do you want me to open the window?) Shall the boy wait?
In this meaning shall is often used in formal writing: You shall not kill. (The Bible) Whoever commits robbery shall be punished with rigorous imprisonment and shall also be liable to a fine. Payment shall be made by the end of the month.
In the negative shall expresses prohibition: You shall not have it! It's mine. He says he will do it but I say he shall not (do it).
6.15.1.5. Should
Should is used to express mild obligation in the form of advice or recommendation: If you see anything unusual you should call the police. You should practise more to become a professional musician.
To refer an action to the past should takes a perfect infinitive: You should have told me this long ago. He shouldn 't have said this.
The negative form of should is used to warn that an action is wrong or unwise. For example: He shouldn't be so impatient with people. You shouldn't talk so loud; you'll wake the baby. Compare with needn't which means that
something is unnecessary: You needn't talk so loud; I can hear you.
In modern English should is synonymous to ought to though should is milder in British English.
6.15.1.6. Ought to
The third person singular is ought. Its negative form is ought not/oughtn't. Ought always takes the infinitive with to.
Ought to is used to denote moral duty: She ought to look after her children better. You ought to be ashamed oj yourself.
To refer an action to the past ought takes a perfect infinitive: You ought to have helped him. This old coal ought to have been thrown away years ago.
The negative form of ought is used to warn against г wrong or unwise action: You oughtn 't to talk so loud, you'll wake the baby. Compare needn't which denotes an unnecessary action: You needn't talk so loud; you'll wake the baby.
Ought and should are similar in meaning but ought is slightly stronger in British English.