- •1) Phonetics as a science:
- •2)Experimental phonetics: Methods of investigation (The direct observation method; The experimental method; The distributional method; The semantic method).
- •3)The aspects of speech sounds.
- •4)Physical properties of sounds.
- •5)The organs of speech and their functions: Active and passive organs of speech; The articulatory mechanism and its work.
- •6)Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowels in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •7)Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •8)Segmental and suprasegmental phonemes: The definition of the phoneme; The aspects of the phoneme; The functions of the phoneme.
- •9) Phonemes and Allophones: The principal allophone; The subsidiary allophones (types); Distinctive and non-distinctive features of phonemes; The invariant of the phoneme.
- •10)Connected speech: Lexical and function words; Strong and weak forms; Neutralization; Assimilation (types); Dissimilation; Accommodation; Elision; Intrusion; Linking (Fillers).
- •11)Syllable: Definition; Parts of syllable; Types and functions of syllables; The structure of the syllable.
- •12)The principal theories of syllable formation and syllable division.
- •13)The accentual structure of English words: Word stress (its types and functions); Sentence stress; Degrees of word stress; The factors that determine the degree and the place of stress.
- •15) Transcription and transliteration. Types of transcription.
- •16)Phonostylistics: The components of extralinguistic situation; The factors which result in phonostylistic varieties.
- •17)Intonation: Definition; The components of intonation and their functions.
- •18)The methods for recording intonation patterns in writing and advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
- •19)The most important nuclear tones in English. Simple and complex tones. High and low falling tones. The types of scales in English.
- •20) The most important elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of an intonation group (An intonation pattern; The characteristics of an intonation group).
- •21)The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation and their graphical representation on the staves or in the line of text itself.
- •22) Territorial Varieties of English pronunciation. The orthoepic norm. The national language of England. Literary English. Rp and ga.
- •23)Spread of English.
- •24)English-based pronunciation standards of English.
- •25)American - based pronunciation standards of English.
10)Connected speech: Lexical and function words; Strong and weak forms; Neutralization; Assimilation (types); Dissimilation; Accommodation; Elision; Intrusion; Linking (Fillers).
Words can be subdivided into categories: lexical words, which keep qualitative and quantitative patterns of their sound form (N, Adj, V, Adv); function words which may have 2 or more qualitative or quantitative realizations depending if they are stressed or unstressed (aux v, prep, conj, articles). Stressed are strong forms, unstressed- weak form. Situations when the strong form of function word is obligatory: 1) isolation, 2) citation, 3) in form of contrast when special emphasis is required, 4) at the end of phrase/sentence (what is it made of?), 5) words that do not have weak form (do, have, has, had – if not aux, that, some), 6) he/his/him/her/who. Wnen the w-s are unstressed the initial sound is normally dropped. But at the beginning of the sentence it isn’t dropped (Did ‘e win?/ He won the prize), 7) In sentences which begin with the aux verb. Aux v are stressed if no stressed word follows it (are they coming?). In tag questions the verb is stressed, the pronoun- unstressed, 8) Indefinite adverb “there” in sentences is unstressed and weakened to “thr”. But demonstrative adv and adv of place are never weakened.
Neutralization. The pronunciation of words when the distinction between phonemes is lost in the particular environment (s-z in unstressed position in connected sp – it is, it’s, what’s).
Assimilation. When adjacent sounds within a word/ word boundary influence each other so that the articulation of the 1 sound becomes similar with the articulation of the other sound. Assimilated sound- whose articulation is modified. Assimilating sound – the one who influences articulation.
Accomodation - change of cons under the influence of a vowel (salt, false). Acc to impact it can be: partial (incomplete)- when 2 sounds become similar in 1 feature (news-newspaper), total (complete)- when 2 sounds become identical (illogical), intermediate (gooseberry). Acc to direction: regressive- when the sound changes because of the influence of the following sound, recyplical – 2 sounds change because of the mutual influence on each other (give me –gimmi), progressive- … because of the influence of preceding sound (you can). Acc to place: contact/direct- influence on adjacent sound (ten boys), distinct – influence of remote sound (very well).
Elision- omission of sounds in words. 1. Avoidance of complex cons clusters (postman=/posman/), 2. Loss of vowel after aspirated sounds (potato, today, connect), 3. Loss of final /v/ in of before some cons (cup of tea)
Intrusion- addition of sounds (film- filem)
Linking (fillers)- when we speak spontaneously we make extra pauses. Fillers lexical(anyway, so) and non-lexical (eee, mm).
11)Syllable: Definition; Parts of syllable; Types and functions of syllables; The structure of the syllable.
Speech can be broken into minimum pronounceable units where the sp sounds can reveal themselves- into syllables. Words can be monosyllabic and polysyllabic.
Syllable- is language unit which consists of one or more sounds and that is smaller than a word.
Vasyliev: Syll- is 1 or more sounds forming an uninterruptable unit of utterance which can form a whole word or a part of it. Kenyon: Syll- is 1 or more sounds forming an uninterruptable unit of utterance which may be a word or commonly recognized subdivision of a word.
The articulation that constitutes the syll results from the combined work of 4 mechanisms. The contraction of certain chest muscles accompanied with air pressure make up a syll. In pronouncing the syll the energy of articulation increases until it reaches its climax- the most energetically articulated phoneme in the syll. The valley of prominence- the weakest articulation marks boundary between 2 syllables. Sonorants and vowels are mostprominent in the syll and are produced in the peak. Peak is formed by sonorants and vowels. Slope- a sound that precedes the peack. Syllabograph- a syll in writing. Acoustically and auditorily the syll is characterized by the force of utterance, the pitch, sonority, length, the smallest unit of perception.
Types of syll: Acc to whether they end in v/c – open/closed. Acc to whether they begin in v/c- uncovered/covered. Torsuyev: V- fully open, VC- finally covered, CVC- fully closed, CV- initially covered.
The structure of the syll. Syll can be divided into: Onset- the beginning of the syll. Coda- the central part of the syll (nucleous). Syllabic segments- form nucleous of the syll. Phonotactics- the rules of syllabic arrangement.
The functions of the syll. The syll as a phonological unit performs 3 functions. 1) Constitutive. Syllables constitute words, phrases and sentences through the combination of their prosodic features: stressed/ unstressed (loudness), falling/ rising tone (pitch, intonation), length and tempo (duration). Prosodic features constitute prosodic patterns of words. 2) Distinctive. Lightening and lightning – the only minimal distinctive feature is their syllabicity. In English there are many combinations distinguished by means of difference in syllabic boundary ( a name- an aim, I scream- ice cream). Layjuncture (conjuncture) – occurs between sounds within one syll. Open juncture (disjuncture) – occurs between 2 syllables. 3) Identificatory function – is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speakers. The listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary (pea stalks- peace talks, my train- might rain).