- •1) Phonetics as a science:
- •2)Experimental phonetics: Methods of investigation (The direct observation method; The experimental method; The distributional method; The semantic method).
- •3)The aspects of speech sounds.
- •4)Physical properties of sounds.
- •5)The organs of speech and their functions: Active and passive organs of speech; The articulatory mechanism and its work.
- •6)Articulatory and physiological classification of English vowels in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •7)Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants in the works of Soviet, British and American phoneticians.
- •8)Segmental and suprasegmental phonemes: The definition of the phoneme; The aspects of the phoneme; The functions of the phoneme.
- •9) Phonemes and Allophones: The principal allophone; The subsidiary allophones (types); Distinctive and non-distinctive features of phonemes; The invariant of the phoneme.
- •10)Connected speech: Lexical and function words; Strong and weak forms; Neutralization; Assimilation (types); Dissimilation; Accommodation; Elision; Intrusion; Linking (Fillers).
- •11)Syllable: Definition; Parts of syllable; Types and functions of syllables; The structure of the syllable.
- •12)The principal theories of syllable formation and syllable division.
- •13)The accentual structure of English words: Word stress (its types and functions); Sentence stress; Degrees of word stress; The factors that determine the degree and the place of stress.
- •15) Transcription and transliteration. Types of transcription.
- •16)Phonostylistics: The components of extralinguistic situation; The factors which result in phonostylistic varieties.
- •17)Intonation: Definition; The components of intonation and their functions.
- •18)The methods for recording intonation patterns in writing and advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
- •19)The most important nuclear tones in English. Simple and complex tones. High and low falling tones. The types of scales in English.
- •20) The most important elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of an intonation group (An intonation pattern; The characteristics of an intonation group).
- •21)The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation and their graphical representation on the staves or in the line of text itself.
- •22) Territorial Varieties of English pronunciation. The orthoepic norm. The national language of England. Literary English. Rp and ga.
- •23)Spread of English.
- •24)English-based pronunciation standards of English.
- •25)American - based pronunciation standards of English.
20) The most important elements in the pitch-and-stress pattern of an intonation group (An intonation pattern; The characteristics of an intonation group).
Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch coloring. Each syll bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch movements are connected with loudness. Together with tempo of the speech they form an intonation pattern- the basic unit of intonation. They serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. The syntagm is a group of words, which is semantically and syntactically complete. Actualized syntagms are called intonation groups. Each intonation group may consist of 1 or more potential syntagms ( 1)I think 2) he is coming). From semantic and grammatical point of view we deal with sense-groups.
Intonation group has following characteristics:
1.It has at last one accentual word carrying a marked change in pitch
2.It is pronounced at certain rate and without any pause within it
3.It has some kind of voice quality.
21)The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation and their graphical representation on the staves or in the line of text itself.
The pitch and sentence stress components of intonation can be represented graphically: on the table so-called staves (Armstrong and Ward) and in the line of text.
The staves are 2 horizontal (parallel) lines that represent the approximate upper and lower limits of the pitch levels. It is practically impossible to count all pitch levels in an intonation group and name each. It is convenient for intonation analysis and teaching purposes to distinguish in the range of the human voice three pitch levels: high, mid, low. In highly emotional speech there may 2 more pitch levels: extra high and extra low.
Speech melody together with sentence stress is indicated on the staves with the help of dashes and dots placed on different levels. Dash (-) –for stressed syll. Dot (.)- for unstressed syll. A downward curve represents a stressed syll pronounced with a fall in pitch within syll١
An upward dash-represents a stressed syll pronounced with a rise pitch within syll ﺭ
In the line of text intonation is indicated by means of tonetic (vertic and slanting) stress-marks that are placed above and below the line immediately before the syllables they refer to.
22) Territorial Varieties of English pronunciation. The orthoepic norm. The national language of England. Literary English. Rp and ga.
Natural English has 2 material forms : written and spoken. The written form of a natural language is usually is standard which is generally accepted and it is the same throughout the country. But spoken form is not so uniform, it may vary from locality to locality and such forms of a language are called dialects and they may differ in grammar,vocabulary,pronunciation. The branch which deals with differences in pronunciation is called dialectology. All the natural varieties have very much in common. Standard pronunciation – is the one that carries orthoepic norm. It is neutral. It is pronunciation of educated circles and is used by radio/tv. Thanks to economic,political,social factors one of the dialects becomes orthoepic norm. Others are substandard and illiteral within a standard pronunciation. There are also may be variants considered as equal and standard. London became a centre of commerce, industry,learning in the 14th cent. So London dialect is the basis of the national language of England. The literary form was developed. English people consider literary English to be a superior to other forms of English.The literary pronunciation is considered to be more beautiful , more correct than dialectal pronunciation.
National language (by Shweitzer) – historical category evolving from conditions of economic and political concentration. National pronunciation standard - socially accepted variety of a language established by a codified form of correctness. Today all the English-speaking nations have their own national variants of pronunciation. Each of them has peculiar features that distinguish it from other varieties of English. National standards are not fixed. They undergo constant changes due to internal and external factors. National variants of English differ in sound,stress,intonation. There are countries with more than 1 language (Canada – French and Eng). Here we speak about bilingualism in contrast to monoloingualism. As for USA- national standard is General American – it’s social standard,is spoken by educated Americans,used on radio/tv. For the Australian Eng – Educated Australian.