Forms of the Infinitive

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	To write	To be written
Continuous	To be writing	-
Perfect	To have written	To have been written
Perfect Continuous	To have been writing	-

Rules of using the particle "to". Infinitive Constructions:

1. the Objective-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a Noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Objective case;

2. the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a Noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Nominative case;

3. the for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the Infinitive is in predicate relation to a Noun or Pronoun preceded by the preposition "for". The Gerund like the Infinitive developed from the verbal noun. It coincides in

form with Participle 1.

Forms of the Gerund

	Active	Passive
Indefinite	Writing	Being written
Perfect	Having written	Having been written

Nominal characteristics:

1. The Gerund can perform the function of Subject, Object, Predicative;

2. The Gerund can be preceded by a preposition;

3. The Gerund can be modified by a Noun in the Possessive case or by a Possessive Pronoun.

Verbal characteristics:

1. the Gerund of the transitive verb can take a direct object;

2. the Gerund can be modified by an adverb;

3. the Gerund has time-relations and that of transitive verbs has voice distinctions. Predicative Construction with the Gerund is a construction in which the verbal

element expressed by the Gerund is in predicate relation to the nominal element expressed by a Noun or Pronoun:

1. Gerundial (Noun's or Possessive Pronoun + Gerund);

2. Half-Gerundial (Noun in the Common case or Personal Pronoun in the Objective Case + Gerund).

There are some verbs after which both the Infinitive and the Gerund can be used but the former - with reference to a special occasion and the latter - to a general statement: Cf. The child was not afraid of remaining alone, but he was afraid to remain alone on such a stormy night.

Cf.: He remembered posting the letter (about the past). He remembered to post the letter (about the future from the moment denoted by the finite verb). He stopped smoking (gave up the habit). He stopped to smoke (purpose).

The Participle is a non-finite form of the verb which has a verbal and an adjectival character or an adverbial character. Participle 1 (4 forms) and Participle 2 (Past Participle - 1 form).

Adjectival or adverbial character is manifested in its syntactical functions, those of:

1. Attribute,

2. Adverbial Modifier. Verbal character:

1. Participle 1 of a transitive verb can take a direct object;

2. Participle 1 and Participle 2 can be modified by an adverb;

3. Participle 1 has tense distinctions and that of transitive verbs has voice distinctions.

Predicative Constructions with the Participle:

1. the Objective Participial Construction is a construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to a Noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Objective case;

2. the Subjective Participial Construction is a construction in which the Participle is in predicate relation to a Noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Nominative case, which is the Subject of the sentence;

3. the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction is a construction in which the Participle stands in predicate relation to a Noun in the Common case or a Pronoun in the Nominative case, the Noun or Pronoun is not the Subject of the sentence;

4. the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction is introduced by the preposition "with".

Lecture 8. Methods of liguistic analysis (Historical Comparative method). The IC grammar. Transformational grammar.

The historical comparative method was created in the first quarter of the 19^th century in connection with the comparative observation of languages belonging to the Indo-European family. Its appearance was stimulated by the discovery of Sanskrit.

Sir William Jones (1746-1794) was the first to point out that Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic and some other languages had sprung from the same source which no longer existed. Franz Bopp (1791-1867), Rasmus Rask (1787-1832), Jacob Grimm (1785-1863) and A.Ch. Vostokov (1781-1864) continued investigating these kindred languages and defined the fundamental conception of linguistic kinship, thus creating the historical comparative method in linguistics. This method was further developed in the works of such scientists as F. Dietz

(1794-1876), A.F. Pott (1802-1887), A. Schleicher (1821-1868), F.I. Buslayev (1848-1897), F.F. Fortunatov (1848-1914), F. de-Saussure (1857-1913).

The historical comparative method is a system of analytical procedures applied to the study of languages in their historical development. The following general conceptions of different aspects of language and its development underlie the foundations of the historical comparative method:

1. families of languages originate due to historical division of languages;

1. lingual signs are arbitrary in the sense that there is no natural connection between their form and the things or ideas they signify;

3) the historical development of language is continual, but uneven. But the historical comparative method has certain limitations:

1. it is limited by the material it can use;

2. some common features of living kindred languages can be the product of further development;

3. it is difficult and sometimes impossible to define the time and even the relative chronology of lingual changes;

4. to understand the innermost nature of language all languages must be studied in comparison, not only kindred.

To arrive at the complete structural meaning of a sentence, to know how the sentence is built we must determine how the separate units of the sentence, its constituents are grouped. Charles Fries introduced the idea of the immediate constituents (IC) in the analysis of the sentence.

A constituent is a linguistic form that enters into some larger construction. An immediate constituent is one of the two constituents of which the given linguistic form is directly built up. To show the importance of the IC grammar Fries compared the phrase grammar with the mathematical grouping of the items in a problem:

(5+4)(6-3)=27; 5+(4x6)-3=26; 5+4(6-3)=17; (5+4)x6-3=51 Each language has its own system of structural grouping and the signals of the groups (phrases). In English there are generally two IC in a phrase (dichotomous phrase structure). The largest IC of a simple sentence are the noun-phrase (NP) and verb-phrase (VP). A candelabra diagramme (analytical). If we turn the analytical diagramme upside down, we will receive a new diagramme which is called a derivation tree. The derivation tree is drawn as two branches forking out from the sign S (sentence), it shows how to generate a sentence.

Growth of international communication. The young child's speech problem. Appearance of Transformational grammar. Its main assumption is that the system of any language contains a rather small number of kernel (basic) sentences and other linguistic forms (such as morphemes and phonemes) and all the other linguistic forms, sentences of different structure are derived or generated from those kernel elements by certain derivation rules which are not very numerous or difficult.

Lecture 9. The phrase. The Sentence. Actual division of the sentence. Communicative types of sentences. Simple sentence. Principle and secondary parts of a sentence. Independent parts.

The term "phrase" was introduced in the 17^th century. In the course of time it has become ambiguous. New terms have appeared: word-group, word-cluster, collocation, word-combination.

Any syntactical unit consisting of two or more elements which are united by syntactic bond expressing definite structural semantic relations is called a phrase. A phrase has no intonation and it is not a unit of speech.

According to Bloomfield's point of view all phrases are divided into two groups:

1. endocentric phrases - a phrase consisting of a head-word and a dependent word. Their function is the same as that of the head-word in the case of subordination or one of the elements in the case of coordination.

2. Exocentric phrases - there is no head-word, they consist of two elements and the function of the construction is different from that of either of its constituents.

Developing the ideas of Bloomfield Charles Chockett divided all endocentric phrases into 4 groups in accordance with the position of the head-word:

1. the head-word in postposition;

2. in preposition;

3. in the centre of the construction;

4. the head-word embraces the construction.

Valency is the ability of words to combine with certain words (combinability). Types of syntactic bond:

• agreement (concord);

• government;

• predicative bond. Means of expressing syntactic bond:

• grammatical forms;

• word order;

• intonation;

• functional words.

According to the centre or head-word the phrase is divided into adverbial, adjectival, substantive, verbal (objective, adverbial, existential).

The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.

The idea of the so-called "actual division of the sentence" (ADS) was put forward by the French scholar A. Weil and later developed by Mathesius (Czechoslovakia). The purpose of the actual division of the sentence (functional sentence perspective) is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of their actual informative role in an utterance. The main components of the actual division of the sentence are the theme and the rheme.

The theme expresses the starting point of the communication, i.e. it denotes an object or a phenomenon about which something is reported. The rheme expresses the basic informative part of the communication, its contextually relevant centre. Between the theme and the rheme there are positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of various degrees of informative value (transition). The theme of the ADS may or may not coincide with the Subject of the sentence. In its turn the rheme of the ADS may or may not coincide with the Predicate. The ADS finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech. Therefore it is sometimes referred to as the "contextual" division of the sentence.

The ADS in which the theme is expressed by the Subject of the sentence is to be referred as direct actual division, and the case when the rheme is expressed by the Subject we deal with inverted actual division.

Among the formal means of expressing the distinction between the theme and the rheme investigators name such structural elements of language as:

1. word-order patterns;

2. intonation contours;

3. constructions with introducers;

4. syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes;

5. constructions with articles and other determiners;

6. constructions with intensifying particles.

In accord with the purpose of communication three cardinal sentence-types have been distinguished:

1. the declarative sentence;

2. the imperative;

3. the interrogative.

Ways of expressing different purposes of communication by the speaker are studied by the branch of linguistics called pragmatic linguistics. Communicative intentions of the speaker are realized in his/her speech act. Among speech acts two mutually opposed and crucially important types are pointed out: constative utterances and performative utterances. Whereas constatives express the speaker's reflections of reality as they are, performatives render such verbal actions of the speaker as immediately constitute his/her social functions. Classification of utterances by the American scholar Charles Fries.

Depending on the number of predicative lines (the predicative connection between the Subject and the Predicate) sentences may be monopredicative and polypredicative.

A simple sentence is a sentence with one predicative line. All simple sentences are divided into two-axis constructions and one-axis constructions. In a two-axis sentence the subject axis and the predicate axis are directly and explicitly expressed in the outer structure. In a one-axis sentence only one axis or its part is explicitly expressed, the other one being non-presented in the outer structure of the sentence. One-axis sentences are divided into free and fixed (greeting formulas, introduction formulas, affirmations and negations).

The semantic classification of simple sentences should be effected on the basis

of:

1. subject categorial meanings;

2. predicate categorial meanings;

3. subject-object relation.

According to the subject categorial meanings all simple sentences are divided into personal (human - definite, indefinite; non-human - animate, inanimate) and impersonal (factual, perceptional). According to the predicate categorial meanings (verbal - actional, statal; nominal - factual, perceptional). According to the subject-object relation (subjective, objective and neutral).

Syntactic derivation is paradigmatic production of more complex pattern constructions out of kernal pattern constructions as their structural bases. The process of syntactic derivation consists of a set of elementary transformational steps:

1. morphological arrangement;

2. functional expansion;

3. substitution;

4. deletion;

5. positional arrangement;

6. intonation arrangement.

These transformational steps may be applied either singly or in combination with one another.

Principle parts of the sentence - the Subject and the Predicate (simple; compound - nominal, verbal modal, verbal aspect). Rules of agreement of the Predicate with the Subject.

Secondary parts are the Object (direct, indirect, prepositional), the Attribute, Adverbial Modifiers (of time, place, condition, manner, purpose, result, comparison, attendant circumstances, cause, concession). Complex parts of the sentence. Independent parts of the sentence are neither its main parts nor secondary. Independent parts are interjections, apposition, direct address, parenthesis and loose/detached parts.

Lecture 10. Composite sentence. Complex sentence, types of clauses. Semi-composite and semi-compound sentences. The sentence in the text.

The Composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines. The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into syndetic (conjunctional) and asyndetic (non-conjuctional). The two main types of the connection of clauses in a composite sentence are subordination (hypotaxis) and coordination (parataxis). Composite sentences are divided into complex and compound.

A polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination is called a complex sentence. It consists of the main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. All subordinate clauses are subdivided into attributive clauses,

NP clauses (Subjective, Objective and Predicative clauses) and D clauses (different types of adverbial clauses).

A composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination is called a compound sentence. The base sentences joined into one compound sentence lose their independent status and become coordinate clauses - parts of a composite unity. The first clause is "leading", the successive clauses are "sequential". The latter clauses include connectors in their composition. The coordinating connectors are divided into:

1. conjunctions proper;

2. connectors of adverbial character.

The main semantic relations between the clauses are:

1. copulative;

2. adversative;

3. disjunctive;

4. causal;

5. consequential;

6. resultative.

The semi-composite sentence is a sentence with more than one predicative lines which are expressed in fusion. One of the lines can be identified as the leading or dominant, the others making the semi-predicative expansion of the sentence. Surface and deep structures.

The semi-complex sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of subordination. It is derived from minimum two base sentences, one matrix and one insert. The semi-composite sentences fall into a number of subtypes. On the character of predicative fusion:

1. word-sharing (Subject-sharing, Object-sharing);

2. direct linear expansion (attributive complication, adverbial complication, nominal-phrase complication).

The semi-compound sentence is a semi-composite sentence built up on the principle of coordination. It is built up of minimum two base sentences having an identical element belonging to one or both of their principal syntactic positions (the Subject, the Predicate or both). The syndetic formation of the semi-compound sentence expresses:

1. copulative connection of events;

2. contrast;

3. disjunction;

4. consequence;

5. limitation;

6. elucidation.

Sentences in continual speech are not used in isolation, they are interconnected both semantically-topically and syntactically.

The primary division of sentence sequences in speech should be based on the communicative direction of their component sentences. From this point of view monologue sequences and dialogue sequences are to be discriminated. The role of

N.S.Pospelov and L.A.Bulakhovsky. Supra-sentential constructions (cumuleme and occurseme).

Sentences in a cumulative sequence can be connected either prospectively (cataphoric cumulation) or retrospectively (anaphoric cumulation).

Test Content

1. Language, its constituent parts. Grammar. Synchrony, diachrony.

2. Two planes of languge. Polysemy, homonymy, synonymy.

3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Notional syntagmas.

4. On the history of English grammar.

5. Units of language, their hierarchy.

6. Morpheme, its types.

7. Distribution, its types.

8. Grammatical categories.

9. The theory of opposition, its types.

10. Synthetical and analytical grammatical forms.

11. Notional parts of speech.

12. Functional parts of speech.

13. Word-building of the noun.

14. The noun, its classification.

15. Gender of the noun, number.

16. Case of the noun.

17. The adjective.

18. The adverb.

19. The article.

20. The pronoun.

21. The numeral.

22. The preposition, the conjunction, the interjection.

23. Methods of liguistic analysis (Componential analysis, Comparative method).

24. The verb, its morphological structure, types of forming Past Simple and Past Participle.

25. Classification of the verbs according to their semantics, syntactical function.

26. Tense and aspect of the English verb.

27. Taxis and voice.

28. Mood.

29. The Infinitive.

30. The Gerund.

31. The Participle.

32. The phrase (the word-group).

33. The IC grammar.

34. Transformational grammar.

35. The Sentence.

36. Actual division of the sentence. Ways of expressing the theme and the rheme.

37. Communicative types of sentences.

38. Simple sentence.

39. Syntactic derivation.

40. Principle and secondary parts of a sentence. Independent parts.

41. Composite sentence.

42. Complex sentence. Attributive clauses, NP-clauses.

43. Complex sentence. D-clauses.

44. Semi-composite and semi-compound sentences.

45. The sentence in the text.