1800 - 1850s: Jacksonian Democracy; Social Movements, Manifest Destiny and Expansion

Throughout the late 1700s and all of the 1800s the federal or national government raised money for its operations primarily through tariffs, which are taxes on imports. Tariffs helped protect the domestic (United States) businesses by increasing the costs of the foreign competition, and thus are called "protective tariffs." The North liked tariffs because the tariffs protected their manufacturing companies against competition by foreign manufacturers; the South disliked tariffs because it caused their cotton farmers to pay more for equipment, and because foreign nations would retaliate by imposing similar tariffs on the cotton exported by the South, which reduced the southern farmers' revenue. The conflict between the North and the South over tariffs was a major economic cause of the Civil War. By 1800 decisions about tariffs and all other federal laws were being made in the marshy land now known as the District of Columbia. This, too, was a compromise between the North and the South.

The formation of political parties: The "Federalist Party," which was strong in the northeast (especially Massachusetts), favored a strong national government, friendly dealings with England, and a liberal interpretation of the Constitution (known as "loose constructionism," because it "loosely" interpreted or construed the Constitution). In opposition to this party, the Democratic-Republican Party formed to represent the opposite: a weak national government (keeping the power at a local level, which Virginia preferred), friendly dealings with France, and a strict interpretation of the Constitution ("strict constructionism"). The Democratic-Republican Party was strongest in Virginia. Politics is a team sport, and the fortunes of political candidates rose or fell based on the strength of the political party to which they belonged. The same is true today, and this system works reasonably well.

In 1800, when the Federalist Party leader John Adams was President, the Democratic-Republican Party ran Thomas Jefferson (who had founded the party) against Adams in the upcoming presidential election.

This presidential election of 1800 became known as the "Revolution of 1800," because it was the first peaceful change in power due to an election in modern history: the group in power, the Federalist Party, was defeated by a group not in power, the Democratic-Republican Party. The Democratic-Republican candidates, Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, were victorious over the incumbent (Federalist) John Adams. The victory by Jefferson and Burr against Adams was a victory for limited government and a "strict constructionist" interpretation and implementation of the Constitution.

Jefferson Administration

Jefferson encouraged westward expansion more strongly than any previous president. To reach this goal, he made purchasing land very easy, and the population west of the Appalachians grew rapidly. He believed that the Indians should be taught to farm, hoping that they would eventually become citizens of the United States.

In 1803, Jefferson appointed James Monroe to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.

But by this time Napoleon had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in Haiti, and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further. So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for all of France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, to what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast). Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for all of the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), and not merely West Florida and New Orleans. This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.

In 1812, Louisiana because the first state admitted to the United States from this new territory. Only one additional state joined the United States during Jefferson's presidency: Ohio, in 1803. Jefferson is credited with eliminating unnecessary taxes such as the whiskey tax and decreasing the size of the federal government.

The War of 1812

England was still in Canada and some "War Hawks" in Congress (led by Henry Clay) accused it of inciting Indian attacks against the United States. A Shawnee Indian named Tecumseh began to unite many of the tribes, and American settlers were terrified. It was believed that the British were arming the Indians and encouraging them to attack. In 1811, General William Henry Harrison (a future president) attacked Tecumseh's village. Of course, this only heightened tension between the Indians and settlers.

Meanwhile, England was also harassing American sailors and "impressing them," which means enlisting them as sailors for England against their will. Adding insult to injury, England invaded D.C. itself and burned down the Capitol and the White House. President Madison was befuddled and almost helpless. His wife Dolly at least showed some initiative by saving the portrait of George Washington as they fled the White House. The British sacked the entire city.

In 1814, in the harbor at Baltimore, a battle was fought at Fort McHenry, during which the British shelled the American fortress. An amateur poet named Francis Scott Key was detained during the battle and put his idle time to good use. He penned the Star-Spangled Banner in honor of how the American flag continued to fly throughout the bombardment. The words were immediately set to music, and became immensely popular. In 1931, over 100 years later, it became the official National Anthem.

Despite thrashing the United States in battle, England did not want to continue fighting. So on Christmas Eve, England agreed to end the war with the Treaty of Ghent, and the U.S. did not have to give back any land. The Treaty, which was negotiated by the Czar of Russia, arranged for the long, open Canadian-U.S. border that remains to this day. Sometimes the War of 1812 is called the Second Revolutionary War because it permanently resolved disputes lingering from the Revolutionary War itself. Madison is frequently blamed by historians for allowing the War of 1812 to happen in the first place.