6.4. Выберите слова или сочетания слов для заполнения пропусков так, чтобы они отражали особенности оформления служебной записки
To: (1)
From: Susan Caffey
Subject: Maltech payment
Date: (2)
Jacob,
Gorman hasn’t paid the current invoice. They paid their May invoice on June 30.
Maltech, however, did not pay May’s bill. I sent them a second notice on July 15.
I sent AB Alliance several reminders. For their May invoice, I sent reminders on _____ (3) and July 15. For June, I sent a reminder on July 31. What next?
_____ (4)
Варианты ответов:
1. Jacob Wiley
2. June 30
3. August 18, 20__
4. S.
Тема № 27. Ознакомительное чтение с целью определения истинности утверждения
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 27.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Some diseases cause an anima’s death.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
The research of genetic diseases is used animals as models.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 27.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Competition is one of the key elements of any habitat.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Quarantine has been recognized since the Roman times.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Species are the key elements of biological classification.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Two vertebrate species participate in the transmission cycle.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 27.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Food deterioration can be reduced by applying antibiotics.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. истинным
3. ложным
Вопрос № 27.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Paleontological researches found the evidence of gradual changes.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Farm animals are subjected by broad researches.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 27.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Malignant tumours are usually spread by mosquitoes.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Тема № 28. Ознакомительное чтение с целью определения ложности утверждения
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 28.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Laboratory tests should be done to identify the cause of a disease.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
There is no difference in the basis of both human and veterinary medicine.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Every animal has its own role in evolutionary cycle.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
It is vital to diagnose animal diseases in early stages.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Comparative genetics is one of the taxonomic methods.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Salmonellos is acquired from poisonous wild animals.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 28.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Water and milk may be the source of zoonotic infections.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 28.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Structural changes in chromosomes are some kind of the evolutionary mechanisms.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. истинным
3. ложным
Вопрос № 28.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Animal health is essential to the efficient production of animal products.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 28.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Rinderpest and rabies are infectious diseases.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Тема № 29. Поисковое чтение с целью определения наличия в тексте запрашиваемой информации
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 29.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Malignant tumours are usually treated.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 29.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
American researchers rarely use mice in their laboratory experiments.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 29.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Marine animals’ embryos require the protection.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 29.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Environmental control provides freedom of movement to sick animals.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 29.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Nowadays researchers classify all organisms into two taxa.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 29.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
There are less than 150 known zoonose diseases.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 29.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Chemical insecticides are the most suitable in killing Trichinella spiralis.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 29.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
The term “heterogeneity” has been known since prehistoric times.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Вопрос № 29.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
There were wide animal metabolism studies at the beginning of the 1900s.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 29.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Diseased animals are determined on the basis of sophisticated tests.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Тема № 30. Поисковое чтение с целью определения наличия или отсутствия в тексте запрашиваемой информации
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 30.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Melanomas in horses tend to spread rapidly.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 30.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Diseases of food animals are the focus of veterinary scientists.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Вопрос № 30.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Dinosaurs were replaced by mammals and most recently by humans.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. ложным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 30.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
The identification of a micro-organism causing a disease enables the veterinarian to choose the best drug for therapy.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Вопрос № 30.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Protozoans were considered to be animals because they move and don’t photosynthesize.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. истинным
3. в тексте нет информации
Вопрос № 30.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Some kinds of fish can cause nervous disturbances.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Вопрос № 30.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
There is a great economic effect of animal-disease research.
Варианты ответов:
1. ложным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. истинным
Вопрос № 30.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
A similar body construction can be used as a criterion for a classification.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. ложным
3. истинным
Вопрос № 30.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Animal ecology and ethology are young branches of the animal sciences.
Варианты ответов:
1. в тексте нет информации
2. истинным
3. ложным
Вопрос № 30.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите, является ли утверждение:
Bovine tuberculosis has been eliminated from European countries.
Варианты ответов:
1. истинным
2. в тексте нет информации
3. ложным
Тема № 31. Изучающее чтение с элементами анализа информации
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 31.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
A veterinarian should treat an animal’s symptoms when it is difficult to diagnose a disease.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 4
3. 2
4. 1
Вопрос № 31.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
There are over one million animals in the modern biological classification.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 1
3. 3
4. 2
Вопрос № 31.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The ocean is a suitable environment for reproduction.
Варианты ответов:
1. 1
2. 2
3. 3
4. 4
Вопрос № 31.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Immunization gives limited protection.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 1
4. 3
Вопрос № 31.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
More complex classification became possible with electron microscopy development.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 1
3. 2
4. 4
Вопрос № 31.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
A veterinarian is in danger to have zoonoses than any other person.
Варианты ответов:
1. 1
2. 4
3. 2
4. 3
Вопрос № 31.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Veterinary medicine deals with zoonoses prevention and treatment.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 3
3. 1
4. 2
Вопрос № 31.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Any new organism should adapt to the environment in which it exists.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 1
3. 2
4. 4
Вопрос № 31.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Some scientific discoveries of the 20th century were devoted to the optimally-balanced animal diet.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 1
4. 3
Вопрос № 31.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
The rabbit number is under the careful control in Australia.
Варианты ответов:
1. 2
2. 4
3. 3
4. 1
Тема № 32. Изучающее чтение с элементами аннотирования
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 32.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Palpation is one of the examination methods.
Варианты ответов:
1. 1
2. 3
3. 2
4. 4
Вопрос № 32.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Animal investigations are applied in nutritional research.
Варианты ответов:
1. 2
2. 4
3. 1
4. 3
Вопрос № 32.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
All forms of life have changed throughout a billion-year history.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 1
3. 3
4. 2
Вопрос № 32.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
People should improve animal housing.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 2
3. 4
4. 1
Вопрос № 32.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Taxonomists deal with organisms’ differences and similarities.
Варианты ответов:
1. 2
2. 3
3. 1
4. 4
Вопрос № 32.6
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ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Bites of some animals may spread dangerous diseases.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 4
3. 1
4. 2
Вопрос № 32.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
Mass immunization is one of the effective methods in diseases control.
Варианты ответов:
1. 2
2. 3
3. 4
4. 1
Вопрос № 32.8
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
There is a diversity of life within every natural population.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 2
3. 3
4. 1
Вопрос № 32.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
It is necessary to meet customer demands in the agricultural farming.
Варианты ответов:
1. 4
2. 1
3. 2
4. 3
Вопрос № 32.10
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая информация:
It is necessary to accomplish strict control measures for agents that carry diseases.
Варианты ответов:
1. 3
2. 2
3. 4
4. 1
Тема № 33. Изучающее чтение с элементами сопоставления
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 33.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What is meant by “clinical findings”?
Варианты ответов:
1. It is an examination of body systems.
2. It is the owner’s report.
3. It is a description of an animal.
4. It is outlook treatment.
Вопрос № 33.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
Why do scientists use animals in researches of human chronic diseases?
Варианты ответов:
1. Because it is necessary to develop new surgical techniques.
2. Because it is illegal to utilize human beings as biomedical models.
3. Because the standards of human medicine are rising.
4. Because animal investigations are widely spread all over the world.
Вопрос № 33.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What is the purpose of animal adaptation?
Варианты ответов:
1. It is the way of survival in a comparatively environment.
2. It provides food for numerous winged insects.
3. It is the phylogenetic history.
4. It is the aim for reproduction of large amphibians and reptiles.
Вопрос № 33.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What does the third preventive measure deal with?
Варианты ответов:
1. It includes the maintenance of safe water supplies.
2. It provides medical knowledge about animal disease prevention.
3. It restricts animals’ presence in a particular area.
4. It utilizes different control methods.
Вопрос № 33.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What taxon does bacterium refer to?
Варианты ответов:
1. It refers to the kingdom of Animalia.
2. It belongs to the category of Protista.
3. It is classified as Monera.
4. It falls under the taxon of Plantae.
Вопрос № 33.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What is the danger of a diseased rat bite?
Варианты ответов:
1. It may be a source of leptospirosis.
2. It may seriously injure tissues.
3. It can transmit rabies.
4. It can spread deadly herpes B virus.
Вопрос № 33.7
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What are the mechanical filters intended for?
Варианты ответов:
1. They create obstacles to snails.
2. They resist visceral larva migrants.
3. They measure the level of chemicals.
4. They help to diagnose cyclozoonoses.
Вопрос № 33.8
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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What does a mutation depend on?
Варианты ответов:
1. It depends on the number of population.
2. It depends on physical similarities found in all living things
3. It depends on the dominant type of reproduction.
4. It depends on the relationship with the environment.
Вопрос № 33.9
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What does the term “animal genetic” mean?
Варианты ответов:
1. It is the study of agricultural animals' relations with their environment.
2. It is the intensive selection and crossbreeding process.
3. It means nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies.
4. It refers to scientific principles of veterinary services.
Вопрос № 33.10
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DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Ответьте на вопрос:
What diseases were eliminated from England?
Варианты ответов:
1. A sleeping sickness in man was completely eliminated.
2. Foot-and-mouth diseases were fully exterminated.
3. A lot of infectious diseases were liquidated.
4. The myxomatosis virus was successfully abolished.
Тема № 34. Изучающее чтение с выделением главных компонентов содержания текста
(Задания предполагают 1 правильный ответ)
Вопрос № 34.1
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
METHODS OF EXAMINATION
1. Before an unhealthy animal receives treatment, an attempt is made to diagnose the disease. Both clinical findings, which include symptoms that are obvious to a nonspecialist and clinical signs that can be appreciated only by a veterinarian, and laboratory test results may be necessary to establish the cause of a disease. A clinical examination should indicate if the animal is in good physical condition, is eating adequately, is bright and alert, and is functioning in an apparently normal manner.
2. Many disease processes are either inflammatory or result from tumours. Malignant tumours tend to spread rapidly and usually cause death. Other diseases cause the circulatory disturbances or the degenerative and infiltrative changes that are summarized in the preceding section. If a specific diagnosis is not possible, the symptoms of the animal are treated.
3. A case record of the information pertaining to an animal that is suspected of having a disease is begun at the time the animal is taken to a veterinarian (or the veterinarian visits the animal) and is continued through treatment. It includes a description of the animal (age, species, sex, breed); the owner's report; the animal's history; a description of the preliminary examination; clinical findings resulting from an examination of body systems; results of specific laboratory tests; diagnosis regarding a specific cause for the disease (etiology); outlook (prognosis); treatment; case progress; termination; autopsy, if performed; and the utilization of scientific references, if applicable.
4. The veterinarian must diagnose a disease on the basis of a variety of examinations and tests, since he obviously cannot interrogate the animal. Methods used in the preparation of a diagnosis include inspection - a visual examination of the animal; palpation - the application of firm pressure with the fingers to tissues to determine characteristics such as abnormal shapes and possible tumours, the presence of pain, etc.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите основную идею текста
Варианты ответов:
1. A lot of disease processes are inflammatory.
2. The degenerative and infiltrative changes are determined in the preceding section.
3. A veterinarian records an animal’s history.
4. Both a visual and clinical examination is necessary to diagnose an animal’s disease.
Вопрос № 34.2
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ANIMALS IN RESEARCH: THE BIOMEDICAL MODEL
1. Although in modern times the practice of veterinary medicine has been separated from that of human medicine, the observations of the physician and the veterinarian continue to add to the common body of medical knowledge. Of the more than 1,200,000 species of animals thus far identified, only a few have been utilized in research, even though it is likely that, for every known human disease, an identical or similar disease exists in at least one other animal species.
2. Veterinary medicine plays an ever-increasing role in the health of man through the use of animals as biomedical models with similar disease counterparts in man. This use of animals as models is important because research on many genetic and chronic diseases of man cannot be carried out using humans.
3. Hundreds of thousands of mice and monkeys are utilized each year in research laboratories in the U.S. alone. Animal studies are used in the development of new surgical techniques (e.g., organ transplantations), in the testing of new drugs for safety, and in nutritional research. Animals are especially valuable in research involving chronic degenerative diseases because they can be induced experimentally in them with relative ease. The importance of chronic degenerative diseases, such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases, has increased in parallel with the growing number of communicable diseases that have been brought under control.
4. The study of animals with diseases similar to those that affect man has increased knowledge of the diseases in man; knowledge of nutrition, for example, based largely on the results of animal studies, has improved the health of animals, including man. Animal investigations have been used extensively in the treatment of shock, in open-heart surgery, in organ transplantations, and in the testing of new drugs. Other important contributions to human health undoubtedly will result from new research discoveries involving the study of animal diseases.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите основную идею текста
Варианты ответов:
1. Monkeys are used in the new drugs testing.
2. Cardiovascular diseases must be under control.
3. There are biological, chemical and physical similarities in all living things.
4. The study of animals has made a valuable contribution to human medicine.
Вопрос № 34.3
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
COMPETITION AND ANIMAL DIVERSITY
1. The majority of animal phyla have always been, confined to the sea, a comparatively benign environment. Marine animals need not osmoregulate, thermoregulate, or provide against desiccation. The energy procured can thus be used mostly for growth, reproduction, and defence. Even reproduction can be simple: shunting millions of eggs and sperm into the water and letting them fend for themselves. Developing embryos do not need the protection of a womb because the ocean provides a suitable environment.
2. Despite the simplicity an animal's life can attain within the ocean, most oceanic animals have not remained simple. Competition and predation, two major components of any habitat, have complicated the lives of animals, leading to ever more novel ways of surviving. No matter how inimical to life, the physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements to which adaptation is often comparatively easy. Competition and predation, in contrast, relentlessly challenge all forms of life no matter how perfect they become for an instant in time. Adaptations often become obsolete as soon as they are successful, because successful life forms become a prime source of food for others.
3. Given the simple thesis that competition drives much adaptation, the ecological diversity of animals can be sketched readily. Form, function, and phylogenetic history reflect the roles that animals assume in the evolutionary drama. Throughout a billion-year history, the animal actors have changed many times, but they perform variations on the same theme and the backdrops look much the same.
4. For example, shortly after plants became well established, forests of giant lycopods and tree ferns provided food and shelter for numerous arthropods, including winged insects, on which four-legged amphibious vertebrates fed. Larger amphibians and reptiles later turned to smaller ones for food. Some of the arthropods and other terrestrial animals in turn were parasitic on the vertebrates.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите основную идею текста
Варианты ответов:
1. Most oceanic animals have not remained simple.
2. The physical components of environments are relatively predictable elements.
3. Terrestrial animals were parasitic on the vertebrates.
4. Animal ecological diversity depends on competition and adaptation.
Вопрос № 34.4
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
DISEASE PREVENTION
1. Prevention is the first line of defence against disease. At least four preventive techniques are available for use in the prevention of disease in an animal population. One is the exclusion of causative agents of disease from specific geographic areas, or quarantine. A second preventive tool utilizes control methods such as immunization, environmental control, and chemical agents to protect specific animal populations from endemic diseases, diseases normally present in an area. The third preventive measure concerns the mass education of people about disease prevention. Finally, early diagnosis of illness among members of an animal population is important so that disease manifestations do not become too severe and so that affected animals can be more easily managed and treated.
2. Quarantine - the restriction of movement of animals suffering from or exposed to infections such as bluetongue and scrapie (in sheep), foot-and-mouth disease (in cattle), and rabies (in dogs) - is one of the oldest tools of preventive medicine. It was applied to domesticated animals as early as Roman times. The establishment of international livestock quarantine in the United States in 1890 provided for the holding of all imported cattle, sheep, and swine at the port of entry for 90, 15, and 15 days, respectively.
3. Mass immunization as a preventive technique has the advantage of allowing the resistant animal freedom of movement, unlike environmental control, in which the animal is confined to the controlled area; immunization may, however, provide only short-lived and partial protection.
4. Mass-inoculation techniques against diseases such as Newcastle disease in chickens and distemper in mink and dogs have been successful. Animal diseases have been prevented by methods involving environmental control, including the maintenance of safe water supplies, the hygienic disposal of animal excrement, air sanitation, pest control, and the improvement of animal housing.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите основную идею текста
Варианты ответов:
1. The combined techniques are applied to prevent animal diseases.
2. Mass-inoculation techniques have been successful.
3. Animals suffer greatly from foot-and-mouth diseases.
4. The first international livestock quarantine in the US was in 1890.
Вопрос № 34.5
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
TAXONOMY
1. Taxonomy in broad sense is the science of classification, but more strictly the classification of living and extinct organisms, i.e., biological classification. The term is derived from the Greek taxis ("arrangement") and nomos ("law"). The taxonomist creates from a varied array of organisms a hierarchy of groupings, or taxa, that have an orderly relationship to each other. The basic unit in taxonomy is the species.
2. Most modern taxonomists attempt to group organisms so as to reflect evolutionary relationships. The basic method of taxonomy is to compare the characteristics of the structure of living and extinct organisms by the methods of comparative anatomy and to interpret their differences and similarities in the light of comparative genetics, biochemistry, physiology, embryology, behaviour, ecology, and geography.
3. Authorities once divided organisms into two simple categories, or taxa - the kingdoms Plantae and Animalia. A third kingdom, Protista, was later proposed for those organisms that are not clearly plant or animal, such as the protozoa, bacteria, and algae. Improvements in biochemical and genetic research and advances in electron microscopy enabled further classification.
4. At present most authorities classify all living and extinct organisms into either a five-kingdom system or a four-kingdom system. The five-kingdom system recognizes Animalia, Plantae, Monera, Fungi, and Protista (basically all eukaryotic microorganisms - i.e., algae, protozoans, and slime molds), and the four-kingdom system recognizes only the kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Monera, and Virus; i.e., while recognizing the separation of the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, the four-kingdom system places the protozoans with the animals and the fungi and algae with the plants. The main subordinate taxa are successively the phylum (or division for plants), class, order, family, genus, and species. The basic units of the classificatory system are readily recognizable kinds, or species.
(Encyclopedia Britannica)Определите основную идею текста
Варианты ответов:
1. The fungi and algae are placed with plants.
2. Taxonomy is the system of organisms’ group hierarchy.
3. At present there are four and five kingdom systems.
4. The term “taxonomy” has both broad and narrow sense.
Вопрос № 34.6
Прочитайте текст и выполните задания
ZOONOSES
1. Zoonoses are human diseases acquired from or transmitted to any other vertebrate animal. Zoonotic diseases are common in currently developing countries throughout the world and constitute, with starvation, the major threat to human health. More than 150 such diseases are known.
2. Zoonoses may be separated into four principal types, depending on the mechanisms of transmission and epidemiology. One type includes the direct zoonoses, such as rabies and brucellosis, which are maintained in nature by one vertebrate species. The transmission cycle of the cyclozoonoses, of which tapeworm infections are an example, requires at least two different vertebrate species. Both vertebrate and invertebrate animals are required as intermediate hosts in the transmission to humans of metazoonoses.
3. Most animals that serve as reservoirs for zoonoses are domesticated and wild animals with which man commonly associates. People in occupations such as veterinary medicine and public health, therefore, have a greater exposure to zoonoses than do those in occupations less closely concerned with animals.
4. In addition to the numerous human diseases spread by contact with the parasitic worm helminth and by contact with arthropods, many diseases are transmitted by the bites and venom of certain animals; poisonous or diseased food animals also transmit diseases. Dog bites may seriously injure tissues and also can transmit bacterial infections and rabies. The bite of a diseased rat may transmit diseases to man, including plague, salmonellosis, leptospirosis and rat-bite fevers. Cat-scratch disease may be transmitted through cat bites, and the deadly herpes B virus can spread by monkey bites. The bites of venomous snakes and fish account for considerable human discomfort and death. Poisonous wild animals inadvertently used for food include animals harbouring the anthrax bacillus and those containing the causative agents of salmonellosis, trichinosis, ect. The flesh of various types of fish is toxic to man.
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Варианты ответов:
1. Zoonoses endanger human health.
2. Wild animals can cause zoonotic diseases.
3. Brucellos is considered to be a direct zoonose.
4. Zoonose type depends on epidemiology.
Вопрос № 34.7
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ZOONOSE CONTROL APPROACHES
1. Approaches to the control of zoonoses differ according to the type under consideration. Because the majority of direct zoonoses and cyclozoonoses and some saprozoonoses are most effectively controlled by techniques involving the animal host, methods used to combat these diseases are almost entirely the responsibility of veterinary medicine.
2. A good example is the elimination of stray dogs, for they are an important factor in the control of zoonoses such as rabies, hydatid disease, and visceral larva migrants. In addition, the control of diseases such as brucellosis and tuberculosis in cattle involves a combination of methods - mass immunization, diagnosis, slaughter of infected animals, environmental disinfection, and quarantine.
3. Air-sanitation measures are helpful in direct zoonoses in which human illness is spread by droplets or dust, and zoonotic infections that are spread through a fluid medium, such as water or milk, sometimes can be controlled. Heat, cold, and irradiation are effective in killing the immature forms of Trichinella spiralis, the causative agent of trichinosis, in meat; and certain antibiotic drugs help to prevent deterioration of food.
4. The control of metazoonoses may be directed at the infected vertebrate hosts, at the infected invertebrate host, or at both. Particularly effective in this instance has been the use of chemical insecticides to attack the invertebrate carriers of specific infections, even though several difficulties have been encountered - for example, the inaccessibility of the invertebrate to the chemicals, which occurs with
organisms that breed in swiftly flowing waters or in dense vegetation, and the development of insecticide resistance by the organisms. Insecticides are used to destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria. Mechanical filters placed across irrigation ditches help to prevent the dissemination of the snails that transmit parasitic flatworms.
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Варианты ответов:
1. The combined methods are utilized to prevent animal diseases.
2. Air-sanitation techniques are useful in direct zoonoses.
3. Infection diseases are spread through a fluid medium.
4. Insecticides destroy the mosquitoes that spread malaria.
Вопрос № 34.8
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BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
1. Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things, a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records.
2. Long after Darwin had assumed that variations existed; biologists discovered that they are caused by a change in the genetic material. This change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of the constituents of DNA, a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
3. It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce. It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population's chances for survival in the environment in which it exists.
4. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or else it eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the heterogeneity within each species.
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Варианты ответов:
1. The process of natural selection preserves the evolutionary diversity.
2. The novelty increases the population's chances for survival.
3. Darwin assumed the existence of variations.
4. The constituents of DNA undergo changes.
Вопрос № 34.9
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ANIMAL SCIENCES
1. In modern civilizations, people rely on meat, milk, and eggs as major sources of numerous nutrients. To satisfy this demand, sheep, goats, cattle, water buffalo, swine, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys are produced on farms all over the world. To understand how agricultural animals convert feedstuffs into the food and other commodities consumers demand, animal scientists have undertaken broad investigations using highly sophisticated techniques. The animal sciences comprise applied animal physiology, nutrition, breeding and genetics, ecology and ethology, and livestock and poultry management. In addition, diseases of food animals are the focus of many veterinary scientists.
2. Animal nutrition research was well-established in several centres around the world by the turn of the 20th century, and it began to flourish during the second quarter of the 1900s. Many discoveries have been made about animal metabolism and consequent nutrient requirements; the usefulness of hundreds of feedstuffs as sources of essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals, as well as lipids and carbohydrates; the proper balance of available nutrients in the diet; nutrient supplements and feed-processing technologies; and metabolite-partitioning and growth-promoting compounds.
3. These fundamental findings have been applied widely since 1950, bringing about improved animal feeding. Studies of life processes in farm animals have helped in developing the optimal nutriment for each animal, and human nutrition has benefited enormously from the knowledge that has come from these investigations.
4. The notion that "like begets like" was already current in biblical times. Long before the science of animal genetics developed, all species of agricultural animals were subjected to selective breeding to some extent. Modifying livestock and poultry to meet consumer demands requires the application of scientific principles to the selection of superior breeding animals and planned matings.
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Варианты ответов:
1. Meat, milk, and eggs are major sources of numerous nutrients.
2. The composition of amino acids and minerals has been investigated.
3. Modern civilizations have made a valuable contribution to animal sciences.
4. Human nutrition has benefited from the researches of farm animals life.
Вопрос № 34.10
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DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION
1. Methods of disease control and eradication have been successful in various countries. In the US the test-and-slaughter technique, in which simple tests are used to confirm the existence of diseased animals that are then slaughtered, has been of great value in controlling infectious and hereditary diseases, including dourine, a venereal disease in horses, fowl plague, and foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and deer.
2. Many infectious diseases have been eradicated from Great Britain - sheep pox, rinderpest, pleuropneumonia, glanders, and rabies. Diseases eliminated from Australia by a combination of methods - control of agents that carry disease, the test-and-slaughter technique, the use of chemical agents, and, more recently, biological control - include hog cholera, rinderpest, scrapie, glanders, surra, rabies, and foot-and-mouth disease.
3. In biological control, enemies of the agents that transmit the disease, enemies of the reservoir host, or a specific parasite are introduced into the environment. If a natural enemy of the tsetse fly could be found, for example, African sleeping sickness in man and trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa. Successful biological control of the European-rabbit population in Australia has been accomplished through the use of the myxomatosis virus, which is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes the formation of malignant tumours.
4. Disease control and elimination programs require many sophisticated techniques, in addition to diagnosis and the slaughter of affected animals. They include the control of insects known to transmit diseases; the cooperation of animal owners; the development through research of new diagnostic tests for use on large populations; the eradication of animal species from areas in which they are known to transmit disease; sterilization of strains of animals known to carry inheritable metabolic diseases; and effective meat inspection.
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Варианты ответов:
1. Most animals serve as reservoirs for specific parasites.
2. There exist numerous methods in the process of disease control.
3. The test-and-slaughter techniques are applied in the USA.
4. Trypanosomiasis in cattle could be controlled in West Africa.