3. Related Areas of Study

1. discourse analysis

Goffman (1976) conversational analysis

Grice (1975)

Cooperative Principles

Conversational Maxims

1. relation

2. quantity

3. quality

4. manner

Sinclair and Coulthard (1975)

classroom discourse

Coulthard (1977) adjacency pairs

Ochs (1979) planned/unplanned discourse

defined by whether the speaker have had the chance to plan what is to be said before uttering discourse.

in unplanned discourse, speakers use contexts to express propositions which would otherwise be expressed syntactically.

Hatch (1978)

Hatch and Long (1980)

Richards and Schmidt (1983)

Hatch (1992)

2. speech act theory

Austin (1962)

locutionary/illocutionary/perlocutionary acts

Searle (1969)

Brown and Levinson (1978)

Wolfson (1981) on compliments

Olshtain and Cohen (1983) on apology

Hatch (1983)

speech acts and small structured speech events

Beebe et. al. (1985) pragmatic transfer (sociolinguistic transfer in Wolfson's term)

discourse completion test

used semantic formulas and found the transfer in three areas: the order, the frequency and the content of semantic formulas

this study shows that many speech acts, small structured speech events reflect fundamental cultural values.

Ranney (1992)

doctor-patient speech event

claims that learning forms for speech acts and politeness is only part of acquiring sociolinguistic competence. Too much emphasis on teaching conventional speech act and politeness forms may mislead learners into thinking that politeness may always be conveyed by using conventional forms.

in order to make conscious sociolinguistic choices, learners need considerable cultural information about communicative settings and roles.

Holmes and Brown (1987) see below

3. Interactional Competence

Schmidt (1983)

Kramsch (1986)

points out that inability of or insensitivity to L2 discourse may lead to impede communication more than grammatical inaccuracy

Long and Porter (1985)

Pica and Doughty (1985)

Varonis and Gass (1985)

4. Cross-cultural considerations

Thomas (1983)

"pragmatic failure"---"the inability to understand what is meant by what is said."

"pragmalinguistic failure" --- caused by mistaken beliefs about pragmatic force of utterance

"sociopragmatic failure" --- caused by different beliefs about rights, 'mentionables', etc.

It is not the responsibility of the language teacher qua linguist to enforce Anglo-Saxon standards of behaviour, linguistic or otherwise. Rather, it is the teacher's job to equip the student to express her/himself in exactly the ways s/he chooses to do so-rudely, tactfully, or in an elaborately polite manner. What we want to prevent is her/his being unintentionally rude or subservient.

Holmes and Brown (1987)

based on Thomas's theoretical framework (1983) and Manes and Wolfson's work on compliment (1981)

suggests that the formulaic nature of compliments provides an ways solution to the problem of how to express this speech act in English and that pragmalinguistic competence can be taught in the same way as any other linguistic formulas

developing sociocultural awareness will lead to some discussion of the differences between the cultural and social values of a L1 learner and L2 community

Tannen (1976) Greeks and Greek Americans

Her most indirect forms were taken as directives by her Greek host family.

Wolfson (1981)

cross-cultural miscommunication on compliments

Learners with different cultural background simply do not understand why Americans compliment so frequently