Western Ukraine’s Cultural and Political Developments under Poland and Austria (XVII-XIX centuries)

In the 17^th century Ukraine was divided between Poland and Russia. Western Ukraine got first under Polish (14^th century) and later, at the end of the 18^th century, under Austrian control. For several centuries Western Ukraine had been separated from Eastern Ukraine. As a result of that separation the cultural differences between Eastern and Western Ukrainians evolved.

Poland tried to Polonize Ukraine. Ukrainian schools were closed and all Ukrainian nobles exchanged their Ukrainian Orthodox culture for that of Polish and Catholic. Polish rulers, like their Russian colleagues, claimed that there was not any separate Ukrainian nation. The Ukrainians, according to their view, were a lower branch of the Polish people. The Ukrainian language, consequently, was declared to be a Polish dialect. (Attempts were made to change it from Cyrillic into Latin alphabet). The aim of such policy was as much pragmatic as Russia’s Ukrainian policy: to eradicate Ukrainian culture and make assimilation easier. One religion and single culture make state stability more durable. Poland’s cultural policy in Western Ukraine was successful. All Ukrainian nobility was Polonized. The peasantry’s national consciousness was extremely low. Village dwellers perceived themselves as locals („тутешні”), and not as a distinct nationality. Their interests were local. They did not understand that they belonged to a broader cultural group. The society was generally divided not into two different nations but rather into two social groups: пани (nobles) and селяни (peasants).

The situation changed when Poland got under Austrian rule. To secure control over its eastern provinces Austria tried to split the Ukrainians and the Poles. (In fact the Austrian government applied the classic “divide and rule” policy). With that aim the Austrians started to foster the development of Ukrainian culture to make the Ukrainians as much distinct from the Poles as possible. Austria needed a counterbalance to the Polish dominance in its eastern provinces. So they decided to use the Ukrainians for the creation of that counterbalance. The Austrian government opened and financed Ukrainian-language schools and Ukrainian cultural organizations. It helped Ukrainians to establish first political organizations and newspapers. Generally speaking, Ukrainian culture in the Austrian Empire was in a much more favorable position than in the Russian Empire. It is interesting to note that at first the Austrians faced the same problems as the Hromadas in Russian-Ruled Ukraine concerning the Ukrainian language. For example, when in 1809 the Austrian government opened a Ukrainian institute with Ukrainian as the language of instruction, it had to be closed soon as Ukrainians refused to study in their own language; they preferred to be taught in a “civilized” language (Polish or German).

The Polish nobility was very upset by Austria’s pro-Ukrainian policy. They even accused the Austrians of “inventing” the Ukrainian nation. This policy brought good results to the Austrians. During the revolution of 1848 the Ukrainians helped the Austrians to put down the Polish uprising. The integrity of the Austrian empire was saved. In contrast to Russia, Austria did not try to assimilate the Ukrainians because it was impossible. Firstly, Austrian (Germanic) and Ukrainian (Slavic) cultures were too different. Secondly, since the Austrians constituted a small minority in their empire, any kind of assimilation policy was impossible.

Austria was also a developed European country with the rule of law and other democratic procedures. West Ukrainians benefited greatly from that. They had full political rights; could elect and be elected to parliament; could enjoy various democratic freedoms unthinkable in Russia. Thanks to Polish and Austrian influences West Ukrainians developed more pro-European culture than East Ukrainians.

As a result of Austria’s cultural policy West Ukrainians developed a strong sense of national consciousness in contrast to East Ukrainians who were heavily Russified.

Not all Ukrainians in the Austrian Empire developed Ukrainian self-consciousness. There was quite an influential group of the Russophiles generally known as Москвофіли. This group was financed by Russia. It had several cultural centers, publishing houses, libraries, newspapers and magazines. The Russophiles propagated the idea that all Ukrainians (Eastern and Western) were part of the Russian people. The Russophiles were pro-Russian not only because of Russia’s financial support. The feeling of belonging to the powerful Russian nation enhanced their self-esteem. The Russophiles’ ideas were harmful to the integrity of the Austrian Empire. No wonder that the Austrian government did everything it could to weaken the Russophile movement. (It is interesting to note that the Russophiles were also supported by the Poles who wanted to split the Ukrainian national movement).

In 1867 the Austrian Empire was transformed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. That event was important for the Ukrainians of Transcarpathia (Закарпаття) because it placed the region under Hungarian jurisdiction. In contrast to the Austrians the Hungarians wanted to eradicate the Ukrainian movement in the region. Ukrainian cultural organizations and newspapers were closed. Hungarian replaced Ukrainian in schools. Practically all upper class Ukrainians in Transcarpathia accepted Hungarian culture and language.