angl

a) in the English language:

1.I told Dad stuff about Georgia (conversation).

2.We went to Disneyland (conversation).

3.He smiled into my eyes. “I’ve got news for you” (fiction

writing).

4.A: A dog found it in the street and ate it.

B:Do you want that other piece? (conversation).

5.Usually these dogs bark a lot – He looks really tired (conversation).

6.He called her a stupid idiot (conversation).

7.Put it on that table, where all the other folders are (conversation).

8.U.S. officials considered them a serious threat to U.S. peacekeeping troops (newspaper writing).

9.In a study published last year, Wells found that many HMO doctors prescribe minor tranquilizers (newspaper writing).

10.Plans for the Botanical Garden started about a decade after two American botanists made an 1887 visit to England that included a stop at London’s prestigious Kew Gardens (newspaper writing).

11.This lightly effervescent Italian wine seemed sharp at first (newspaper writing).

*The material is taken from “Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook” by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. – P.32–33.

b) in the Ukrainian language:

>•}keh\h – ih\gh\eZ^gbc ]hkih^Zj m j_q_gg• ch]h

\bagZgbc ]jZfZlbqgbc d_j•\gbd <hgh d_jm} gZ\•lv lZdhx fh]mlgvhx qZklbghx fh\b yd •f_ggbd • ebr_ \ ^_ydbo \biZ^dZo aZe_`blv \•^ gvh]h >•}keh\m m }^ghkl• a •f_ggbdZfb `h^g• i_j_rdh^b g_ kljZrg• Py ]jZfZlbqgZ iZjZ l\hjblv j•aghfZg•lg• j_q_ggy K\h}x ihkl•cghx ijbkmlg•klx \ j_q_gg• ^•}keh\h fh\[b gZ]Z^m} gZf ijh k\h} ]jZfZlbqg_ \k_kbeey >•}keh\h m dh`ghfm

j_q_gg• – g_fh\[b ^bjb]_gl fZeh]h Ze_ a^•[gh]h hjd_kljm qb ZgkZf[ex <hgh nhjfm} hjd_kljb qb ZgkZf[e• j_q_gv <hgh \bagZqZ}, kd•evdb mqZkgbd•\ fZ} [mlb ydm iZjl•x ^Zlb dh`ghfm

>•}keh\h fh`_ i_j_f•klblb Z[h \bemqblb a j_q_gv ^_ydbo \bdhgZ\p•\ <hgh ijb^b\ey}lvky dh]h ajh[blb khe•klhf ibevgh

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kl_`blv aZ lbf sh[ olhkv •a i•^e_]ebo g_ \ay\ nZevrb\h€ ghlb GZ ie_q• ^•}keh\Z ihdeZ^_gh ih\gm \•^ih\•^Zevg•klv aZ ]jZfZlbqgbc ihjy^hd ke•\ m j_q_gg• >•}keh\Z gZq_ afZ]Zxlvky aZ l_ sh[ i•^\eZ^g• €f qe_gb j_q_ggy ydgZcdjZs_ \by\beb k_[_ • ihdZaZeb kfbkeh\m lhqg•klv lZ q•ld•klv kbglZdkbqgbo ih[m^h\

/\]_g•y DmpZ

*The material is taken from the article ³P•dZ\Z fhjnheh]•y” Mjhd MdjZ€gkvdh€ – ‹ –6, 2006. – P. 52.

V. Many copular verbs can also be used with other valency patterns. Focus on the underlined main verbs in the sentences below. Identify the valency pattern of each verb: copular, intransitive or transitive. Render these sentences into Ukrainian; make the contrastive analysis of English verbs with their Ukrainian equivalents, taking into account their valency patterns.

1a. As the sun slanted lower in the afternoon sky, he grew restless and ordered the band to play. (fiction writing) grew = copular verb.

1b. So I’m really not sure why we grow it (conversation) grow = transitive verb.

1c. They burned her eyebrows off, and they didn’t ever grow back (conversation) grow = intransitive verb.

2a. It was the first time he had appeared in public since this incident (conversation).

2b. Gram appeared relaxed and at peace with his decision (newspaper writing).

3a. Well he’ll probably stay warm in the winter time then (conversation).

3b. So how much longer did she stay? (conversation).

4a. The whole color scheme looked nice but it could have looked better (conversation)

4b. If you look out the window, you can see the leaves are starting to change. (conversation).

5. Your breath smells fine – I don’t smell your breath, so I don’t even know it smells (conversation).

6a. He had been in radio since he went to Everett High School in Lansing, Michigan (newspaper writing).

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6b. I think it’s the biggest concert any one act has played, and the audience went wild (newspaper writing).

7a. Well, uh, I got hungry and wanted something to chew on (conversation).

7b. And I of course want to go and get the scrub brush and scrub those walls (conversation).

8a. Your hero is Dr Frankenstein, you’ve proved that tonight (conversation).

8b. Finding common ground often has proved difficult over the past two years (newspaper writing).

*The material is taken from “Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook” by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. – P.36.

V1. Underline all the verbs in the following pieces of text.

Analyze them according to the grammatical meaning they express (tense, aspect, voice, person, number, mood).

a) in the English language:

1.The varieties of meaning we have specified so far are summarized in Figure 6.1 (academic writing).

2.[A storm had damaged the raft on a journey across the ocean.] Everyone was noticeably quieter, each man thinking about the chances of whether we would be forced to leave the raft (conversation).

3.In spite of the splendid work in the last few decades of a highly dedicated group of neuroscientist, we are still quite ignorant about the structure and functioning of the human brain with respect to such basic cognitive functions as language. In fact, the study of the brain has often been described at the next intellectual frontier (academic writing).

4.For no known reason, the government assumed that four fifths of these people probably could read and, on this dangerous assumption, it was publicly announced that 99 percent of all American adults could read and write. These are the figures which the U.S. government passed on to the United Nations for the purposes of worldwide compilations and comparisons. The numbers in the 1980 census improved a bit on those of 1970. This time it was found that

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99.5 percent of all American adults could read and write (academic writing).

5. The king wore it [the Hope Diamond] on a ribbon around his neck on ceremonial occasions. There is no mention of what happened to the pieces that were chopped off. The stone was stolen during the French Revolution in 1792; it turned up two decades later in England in its present shape and size (newspaper writing).

*The material is taken from “Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English Workbook” by Susan Conrad, Douglas Biber, Geoffrey Leech, Pearson Education Limited, 2003. – P.44.

b) in the Ukrainian language:

>•}keh\h ³;mlb qb g_ [mlb"´ P•dZ\h qb gZjh^beZky [ py agZf_gblZ gZ \_kv k\•l njZaZ R_dki•jZ yd [b g_ [meh lZdh€ agZqmsh€ qZklbgb fh\b yd ^•}keh\h" LZ c maZ]Ze• qb afh]eb [ m l\hjZo ibkvf_ggbd•\ ]j•lb khgp_ k\•lblb ahj_ • f•kypv ki•\Zlb ilZrdb • ^mlb \•l_j" Qb afh]eh [ ex^kl\h i_j_kbeblb klZlbqg•klv gZ iZi_j•" Qb afh]eh [ amibgblb gZ fblv gZrm iebggm ^•ckg•klv a[_j•]rb €€ ^bgZf•dm" 1 \ kZfhfm j_q_gg• •gr• qe_gb \ljZlb\rb pvh]h d_j•\gbdZ m \b]ey^• ijbkm^dZ \ljZqZxlv

• \eZkg_ agZq_ggy i_j_l\hjxxqbkv gZ ijhklbc gZ[•j ke•\

AgZqms•klv ^•}keh\Z i•^dj_kex} • ch]h ih^•e gZ fbgmebc l_i_j•rg•c • fZc[mlg•c qZkb i_jrm • ^jm]m ^•}\•^f•gb gZ ^•ckgbc gZdZah\bc c mfh\gbc kihkh[b <hgh lZdh` fZ}

g_hagZq_gm nhjfm – •gn•g•lb\ •a ch]h ^hihfh]hx fb fh`_fh

kf•eb\h dhjbklm\Zlbky ^•}ijbdf_lgbdZfb • ^•}ijbke•\gbdZfb LZ fb g•dheb g_ aZfbkex}fhky gZ^ pbf \bdhjbklh\mxqb keh\Z m sh^_gg•c ijZdlbp• LZd e_]dh ajb\Zxlvky \hgb a gZrbo \mkl • lZd q•ldh \bjZ`Zxlv gZr• ^mfdb c [Z`Zggy Fb \ijZ\gh [m^m}fh j_q_ggy GZkbqmxqb ch]h kdeZ^gbfb a\hjhlZfb ijbdjZrZxqb _i•l_lZfb • ihj•\gyggyfb <k_ p_ a^Z}lvky lZdbf ijhklbf • a\bqgbf sh gZ\•lv \Z`dh my\blb sh pvh]h fh]eh [ • g_ [mlb LZ c yd \hgh fh]eh [ [mlb yd[b g_ [meh kZfh]h keh\Z ³[mlb´"

He_dkZg^jZ FboZceh\Z

*The material is taken from the article ³P•dZ\Z fhjnheh]•y” Mjhd MdjZ€gkvdh€ – ‹ –6, 2006. – P. 52.

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CHAPTER 6

Non-finite forms of the verb in English and Ukrainian languages

1. Non-finite forms of the verb: general characteristics

Besides personal or finite forms of the verb that perform in the sentence the function of simple predicate in both languages there are also the so-called non-finite forms of the verb (g_hkh[h\• nhjfb ^•}keh\Z). The system of non-finite forms (also called verbals or verbids) of Ukrainian and English verbs differs. The only common verbal form in these systems is the Infinitive (the indefinite form of the verb). The English language besides possesses a peculiar verbal form – the Gerund, which does not have its counterpart in Ukrainian. The third verbal form of the English language – Participle (in Ukrainian grammars rendered correspondingly as – ^•}ijbdf_lgbd) has a number of such qualities and functions that correspond in Ukrainian to two non-finite verb forms – ^•}ijbdf_lgbd and

^•}ijbke•\gbd [5; 96].

The verbids have certain features of their own distinguishing them from the finite verb.

1. Their lexico-grammatical meaning is of dual nature. The verbal meaning of “action, process” is presented as some kind of “substance” (for gerunds, infinitives) or “quality” (for participles).

The lexico-grammatical meaning of verbids, though essentially that of the verb (denoting actions) has something of the lexicogrammatical meanings of other parts of speech. The gerund, for instance, denotes an action partially treated as a substance. Thus, in the sentence Going there put an end to her anxiety the gerund going, though denoting an action, presents it at the same time as a substance which produced the act of putting an end to something. The participle denotes a “qualifying action” that is an action as a property of some substance (like an adjective) or a circumstance of another action (like an adverb), e.g.: He looked at his son with twinkling eyes. “Let me do it”, he said kneeling beside her.

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2.Verbals have peculiar morphemes, e.g. in English: -ing (gerund and participle I), -ed, -en (participle II), to (infinitive); in Ukrainian -lb (for infinitives), -bc (for participles).

The mentioned morphemes of English verbids are very peculiar. They are not lexical or lexico-grammatical morphemes because they do not characterize all the words of the verb lexeme. Compare, for instance, the suffix -ize and -ing in realizes, has realized, to realize, realizing, being realized. The suffix -ize is found in every word of the lexeme, the suffix -ing only in some words.

The -ing morpheme differs from grammatical morphemes as well. Grammatical morphemes are used to form grammatical opposemes. Compare: asks – asked – will ask. The suffix -ing of the gerund is not used to form any grammatical opposemes. It serves to oppose all the gerunds to all the non-gerunds. Thus, it is a peculiar group-suffix within the verb-lexeme.

The same could be said about the homonymous -ing suffix of the participle but with two additional remarks.

a) The participial -ing morpheme does not unite all the system of the participle. The so-called participle II (written, asked) has different suffixes.

b) Since Participle I is used to form analytical “continuous aspect” grammemes, the -ing suffix of the participle has become a grammatical morpheme of the finite verb as well. The suffixes of Participle II are not group suffixes because Participle II is a one wordsystem. In all other respects they resemble the participial -ing suffix. They are used as grammatical morphemes participating in the formation of “passive voice” and “perfect tense” grammemes.

Of great interest is the “to” word-morpheme of the infinitive. It is a word-morpheme because it has only the form of a separate word, but not the content, and it functions as part of a word. It is a group morpheme (like -ing), but unlike the participial -ing it is not used as a grammatical morpheme. Compare: shall come, not shall * to come [24; 183–185].

3.There is duality in verbids’ combinability. They form connections with adverbs, nouns, pronouns (denoting objects of action) like finite verbs, and with finite verbs like nouns or adverbs.

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The gerund, for example, may be preceded by a preposition and a possessive pronoun, like a noun, e.g.: One could see that without his even speaking.

The participle is regularly connected with nouns, like adjectives, and with verbs, like adverbs, e.g.: his smiling eyes; smiling slyly, he stretched out his hand.

4. Their syntactical functions are quite different from those of the finite verb. They are rarely used as predicates, but they are used in almost any other function in the sentence.

One of the peculiarities of English verbids is their being used as secondary predicates. In the sentence I saw them dancing two actions are named as well as two doers of those actions. But there is a great difference between I saw and them dancing. I saw is more or less independent. It makes a predication that is the core of the sentence or the sentence itself. Them dancing can exist only in a sentence where there is predication (therefore it is called “secondary”). The tense and mood relations of the finite verb are then reflected in the verbid and it becomes a secondary predicate, and combinations like them dancing become secondary predications (called “nexuses” by the prominent English grammarian Otto Jespersen, who was one of the first to draw attention to this kind of a grammar phenomenon). The phenomenon of “secondary predication” constructions is a peculiar feature of the English language not found in Ukrainian.

Therefore, there can be noticed a lot of differences both in qualities and in usage of verbals in both contrasted languages.

2. Infinitive in English and Ukrainian languages

The infinitive is a verbid characterized by the following features:

1.Its dual lexico-grammatical meaning of “action, process partially viewed as a substance”. Both in Ukrainian and in English the infinitive names the action or process without expressing their relation to person, number, tense and mood (work, wait, jh[blb, q_dZlb).

2.Typical word-building elements of the infinitive differ greatly in both languages.

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The English infinitive is characterized by the word-morpheme “to”. The infinitival “to” is often called a particle, but it is not so. It is a group-morpheme of the infinitive. Its being a word-morpheme distinguishes it from other group-morphemes, such as -ing, -en, etc. Like other word-morphemes, “to” can represent the whole analytical word. Compare the answers to Will you go? 1) Yes, I shall, where shall represents the analytical word shall go. 2) I want to, where to represents the analytical word to go.

Similar to other word-morphemes, “to” can be separated from the rest of analytical word by some other word or words, in this case linguists speak of the split infinitive, e.g.: He will fully appreciate …. They asked him to personally intervene …. Compare also: It is necessary to somehow arrange it. – Lj_[Z p_ ydhkv \eZrlm\Zlb. The importance of this particle is also obvious from the fact that it can replace by itself the infinitive if it has already been used, e.g.: He wants me to go there, but I don’t want to. <•g ohq_ sh[ y i•rh\ lm^b Ze_ y g_ ohqm •lb jh[blb p_ . In Ukrainian in similar cases the infinitive can be altogether missing [5; 96–98].

The presence or absence of this word-morpheme depends on the context of the infinitive in speech, thus the infinitive is used without its word-morpheme “to” after some verbs and verbal expressions, namely: a) after modal verbs (except ought, have), b) verbs of physical perceptions – to see, to hear, to observe, to perceive, to watch, c) to make, to let, d) had better, would rather, etc. [24; 189].

In Ukrainian the infinitive is characterized by the following typical stem-building morphemes: suffixes -lb (-lv) (ieZdZlb, jh[blv), -gm, -m\Z (-x\Z), -Z, -b, -• (€) + -lb (klmdgmlb, fZg^jm\Zlb, ]hklx\Zlb, qblZlb, [Zqblb, mf•lb).

A very peculiar phenomenon of the Ukrainian language are the forms of the infinitive with the diminutive meaning (agZq_ggy i_kleb\hkl•), formed with the help of suffixes, common also for nouns, for example: and kiZlhgvdb, €klhgvdb, iblhgvdb, kiZlmk• others: €klhgvdb g_ €f, • iblhgvdb g_ i’x lZ \b]ey^Zx \k_ Ahame_gvdm fhx (/ =e•[h\) [5; 97].

3. The grammatical categories of voice, aspect (see a paradigm below) in English.

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The Paradigm of the English Infinitive

There are no passive forms of the English infinitive of the continuous aspect. Each of six forms of the infinitive is as if the generalizing forms on the basis of which the corresponding personal aspect-tense forms are built.

The paradigm of the Ukrainian infinitive is characterized by the general verb categories of transitiveness – intransitiveness, aspect and voice (klhylb – klZlb, mdjb\Zlb – mdjblb, mfb\Zlb – mfb\Z- lbky, ih[hjhlb – ih[hjhlbky, [m^m\Zlb – [mlb a[m^h\Zgbf, gZibkZlb – [mlb gZibkZgbf) [15; 170–171].

The peculiarity of the English infinitive is the fact that it has the category of tense. The tense is expressed by this not absolutely but relatively. The tense of the infinitive is not independent; it is subordinated to the tense meaning of the finite verb form, performing the function of the predicate in the sentence. Thus the forms of the infinitive of the common and continuous aspects can render the action simultaneous with the action of the verb-predicate, e.g.: I am glad to see (to be speaking to him). Y jZ^bc, sh [Zqm ch]h (sh ]h\hjx a gbf). The perfect form of the infinitive points towards the fact that the action denoted by it is prior to the action expressed by the verbpredicate, e.g.: I am glad to have seen him. Y jZ^bc, sh ih[Zqb\ ch]h (ih[Zqb\ky a gbf). The perfect continuous form of the infinitive underlines the duration of the action, which began earlier than the action expressed by the predicate and continued up to the moment of speaking.

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From this whole system of forms only two forms of the active and passive state of the common aspect have their correspondences in Ukrainian: to ask – iblZlb, to be asked – [mlb aZiblZgbf. Other forms of the infinitive do not have their correspondences in Ukrainian and are mainly rendered with the help of subordinate sentences. By this the infinitive of the passive state is rarely used in Ukrainian and is mainly substituted by the subordinate sentence, compare: They want to be invited there. <hgb ohqmlv sh[ €o lm^b aZijhkbeb • [mlb aZijhr_gbfb lm^b .

The aspect and voice meanings of the infinitive are the same as in the finites [5; 97–98].

4.Its peculiar combinability resembling that of the verb, and partly that of the noun.

Like a finite verb the infinitive is associated:

a) with adverbs in both languages, e.g. to speak fluently;

]h\hjblb \•evgh.

b) with nouns and pronouns denoting the doer or the object of some action in English, e.g.: We expected you to bring the book.

Like a noun the infinitive may be associated with a finite verb in both languages, e.g.: To land seemed impossible. I promised to come. Y ihh[•py\ ijbclb.

5.The syntactical functions of subject, predicative, object, attribute, adverbial modifier, etc. in English. In Ukrainian the infinitive can function usually as a part of both simple and compound verbal predicates, e.g.: Gbg•rg•c n_klb\Zev [m^_ ijhoh^blb i•^ ^_\•ahf: “K\•l fbehk_j^y”. M ebkl• e•dZj ijhihgm\Z\ \•^fh\b- lbkv \•^ ijbfmkh\h]h oZjZdl_jm e•dm\Zevgh-ijhn•eZdlbqgbo

aZoh^•\ [15; 171].

Apart from different morphological characteristics there are a lot of peculiarities in the syntactic usage of infinitives in both languages. For example, in Ukrainian the infinitive is widely used in the function of the imperative mood (Fh\qZlb! – Silence!), in the meaning of appealing to action (>hkljhdh\h \bdhgZlb p_ aZ\^Zggy!) and others.

In English the infinitive has the following characteristic features:

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