Учебник с грамматикой

Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты

Модальные глаголы указывают отношение говорящего к действию, выраженному инфинитивом: способность, возможность, вероятность, необходимость совершения действия.

Например: You can translate the text. It(s not difficult.

Вы можете перевести текст. Он не трудный.

He could swim well last year.

Он умел плавать хорошо в прошлом году.

You may go out.

Вы можете выйти.

She might come.

Она, вероятно, придет.

You must speak to the doctor.

Вы должны посоветоваться с доктором.

I shall be able to come in time tomorrow.

Завтра я смогу прийти вовремя.

He is not allowed to eat oranges.

Ему нельзя есть апельсины.

I have to get up early in the morning.

Мне приходится вставать рано утром.

You ought to have met her.

Мог бы и встретить её.

You should study letter.

Вам следует лучше учиться.

Упр.5.Прочитайте, найдите и переведите модальные глаголы, определите их значение.

1.They can read English books in the original.

2.He could speak French when he was 5years old.

3.Now you may go home

4.This fibre may be twisted.

5.She might come tomorrow or on Sunday.

6.You must speak to the doctor.

7.When the classes are over the students must go to the library.

8.She is ill, you should see a doctor.

9.They ought to inform his mother.

10.Alice was to come yesterday by train.

11.We have to do it at once.

12.He had to tell me about her illness.

13.We are to leave for Paris next week.

Упр.6.Вставьте необходимый по смыслу модальный глагол или его эквивалент. Переведите получившиеся предложения.

1.I … come tomorrow if I have time.

2.I … swim better than you.

3.You … have consulted a doctor earlier.

4.He … be here by 9 o(clock.

5.… your mother drive ?

6.I … go to London yesterday.

7.You … be tired.

8.That … be John - he(s in Dublin.

9.I told you wouldn(t … do it.

10.I … see you again – who knows.

11.He … help liking her.

Упр.7.Модальные глаголы образуют отрицательную и вопросительную формы без вспомогательных глаголов. Рассмотрите следующие упражнения и переведите их.

1.May I smoke here ? – No, you mustn(t.

2.Could he skate and ski ? – Yes, he couldn(t. ( - No, he couldn(t)

3.She cannot read English books without a dictionary.

4.They ought to speak to the teacher, oughtn(t they ?

5.When may I come in ?

6.The doctor said, she might not leave the room.

Упр.8.Определите значение модальных глаголов и поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную форму.

1.You may take my dictionary.

2.Nobody could answer this question.

3.He can speak German.

4.We must study well.

5.You should come in time.

6.He was to come to the conference.

7.They will have to discuss this question.

8.You ought to help her.

9.She must use a dictionary at the lesson.

10.The students are to come to the laboratory.

The Steam – Engine

Long ago people noticed that steam has the power of moving things, and they began to wonder how steam could be made to work for them. The first steam-engine was made in ancient Egypt by Hero, a philosopher of Alexandria. It consisted of a hollow globe, which could turn on a pair o pipes and was supplied with steam through one of them. The steam escaped from the globe to the outside air through two bent pipes facing tangentially in opposites directions at the ends of a diameter perpendicular to the axis. The globe revolved by reaction from the escaping steam.

Hero(s engine, called the aeolipile and described in his work “Pneumatica” was regarded merely as a toy. In fact, it was seventeen hundred years before anyone showed any further interest in the idea of a steam-engine.

The earliest steam-engine which found employment in industry was that of Thomas Savery in 1698. The engine was used in pumping mines and I raising water to supply houses and towns. A serious difficulty with this engine was that the height which it would lift water was limited by the pressure the boiler could bear.

There were even explosions, as the safety valve had not yet been invented. This was invented by the Frenchman Denis Papin, who was also the inventor of the piston.

The next step forward was taken by the English mechanic Thomas Newcomen, who combined the ideas of Savery and Papin. It was Newcomen who designed an engine that could be used not only to pump water, but also to drive other machinery.

An even better steamengine was built in Russia in 1765 by the brilliant mechanic Ivan Polzunov. One of the reasons why it was better was that it could be used for many purposes and not just for pumping water. Secondly, Polzunov(s engine had two cylinders. Hence, while the piston in one was going down, the piston in the other was rising. It was therefore the first continuousaction engine.

The next inventor who helped to make the steam-engine what it is today was James Watt, a maker of instruments at the University of Glasgow. The legend is told is that Watt invented the modern steam-engine by watching the steam lift the lid of his boiling tea-kettle. This, of course, is not so. Watt began improving the steam-engine, when one of Newcomen(s engines was brought to

his workshop for repairs. This was in 1763. By 1785 he had developed a greatly improved steam-engine, which found many more uses than earlier models had. This led to the Steam Age.

But the story of the steam-engine does not end with Watt. As progress with to the idea of Hero of Alexandria, his aeolipile which was in fact the first steam-turbine, using steam to produce rotary movement.

Упр.I.Подберите русские эквиваленты к следующим словам и словосочетаниям:

Упр.II.Назовите по-английски основные детали парового двигателя. Свой ответ начните словами:

The main parts of the steam-engine are …

Упр.III.Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1.When and where was the first steam-engine made ?

2.Was the Hero(s steam-engine used for industrial purposes ?

3.Who is the inventor of the steam-engine which found employment in industry ?

4.What was a serious difficulty with Savery(s steam-engine ?

5.Who invented the safety valve and the piston ?

6.What are the peculiarities of Polzunov(s steam-engine ?

7.What was James Watt ?

8.What is the legend about Watt(s invention of modern steam-engine ? What is the real state of things with it ?

9.What is the principle of using steam in steam-engines and steam-turbines ?

Упр.IV.Определите, какой частью речи является каждое слово из левой колонки, и дайте его значение, взяв за основу значение слова с тем же корнем из правой колонки:

Упр.V.Подберите антонимы к данным словам из предложенных ниже:

1. difficulty, 2. to lift, 3. strong, 4. to end, 5. first, 6. good, 7. active.

____________________

1. to go down, 2. to make, 3. passive, 4. last, 5. to begin, 6. easiness, 7. weak, 8. bad, 9. power.

Упр.VI.Определите, какой частью речи являются следующие слова. Переведите их:

Brilliant, continuous, merely, explosion, dominate, materialize, development, invention, inventor, improvement.

Упр.VII.Подберите русские эквиваленты к следующим английским словам:

Упр.VIII.Переведите, обращая внимание на местоимения some, any, no, every и их производные:

1. Have you any interesting books on this problem ?

2.Here are some letters for you.

3.Any student can make this simple experiment.

4.Somebody works in the laboratory every evening.

5.Nobody uses this instrument.

6.She never says anything about her Institute.

7.No laboratory assistant works in this laboratory in the evening.

8.Somebody gave me this book yesterday.

9.Is there anybody in this room ?

10.Everybody was present at the lecture two days ago.

11.This work is easy. Every student of our group can do it without any effort.

12.No information was received from the article.

Упр.IX.Вставьте необходимые местоимения, приведенные в скобках. Переведите предложения:

1.This element has (несколько) important properties.

2.There is (кто-то) in the room.

3.My friends always go (куда-нибудь) in summer.

4.(Каждый) makes experiments in the laboratory.

5.(Некоторые) students think that there is (ничего) interesting in this paper.

6.This week we have seen (ничего) interesting films on TV.

Тексты для самостоятельного чтения

Isaac Newton was born in 1642, when a civil war was raging in England. In his youth he was known he was known as a “silent, thinking boy”, who played little with other boys. At the age of 18 he entered Cambridge University, where he showed great ability in science. At 26 Newton became a professor or at the University. His three main interests were mathematics, mechanics and optics.

His first important discoveries were in mathematics. Soon afterwards he formulated his theory of colours and invented the reflecting telescope. E made a small model of this telescope for the Royal Society. It is still on display1 at the Society(s Museum and is shown to the Society(s most distinguished visitors. For example, it was shown to Yuri Gagarin, when he visited London in 1961.

At the age of 30 Newton was elected a fellow2 of the Royal Society.

Newton(s first scientific publication concerned his theory of light and colours. In his publication he founded the science of spectroscopy.

However, Newton(s discoveries at first met strong objections. Among those who refused to accept them were Christian Huygens, the Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist, and Robert Hook. Newton(s long controversy3 with them had a great effect upon him. For some time he published no further works.

Probably, his most famous work is the manuscript for the Royal Society known as “Principia”, which includes (in the form of theoremes and proofs) the presentation of one of the most fundamental laws of the universe – the law of gravity.

Newton died in 1727 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, with England(s heroes.

Notes:

1 to be on display – выставляться;

2 a fellow – член (общества, коллегии); 3 controversy – спор, противоречие.

Text 2

The atomic power plant uses energy from the splitting of atoms, usually from a form of uranium 235 or plutonium.

The secret of atomic energy lies in the peculiar1 characteristics of atom like those of U-235. The nucleus of element 92, uranium, contains 92 protons and, usually, 146 neutrons together.

When it is penetrated2 by an extra neutron, the U-235 nucleus undergoes3 fission4 or splits into two fragments. The two pieces do not quite add up to the original U-235 atom. A tiny bit of the original atomic matter is converted into an enormous amount of energy, and two or three neutrons are shot out. These in turn may split the nuclei of other U-235 atoms, setting off a “chain reaction”.

Notes:

1 peculiar – особый, удивительный;

2 penetrated – проникать;

3 undergo – подвергать, претерпевать;

4 fission – деление (атомного ядра).

Text 3

The equivalent force is known as the resultant of the forces. In the case of two oppositely directed forces acting at the same point, this resultant is found by taking the difference between the applied forces, and its direction is that of the greater force.

When the forces act in the same direction, the resultant is found by adding the applied forces. The forces can be combined into a single force; on the other hand1, a single force can be divided into two or more forces to which it is equivalent. When one force is given, it is possible to find two other forces which when applied at the same time will produce the same effect as the single force. This process of dividing a single force into two or more parts is known as the resolution2 of force, and the parts into which the force is divided are called the components3 of the force.

Notes:

1 on the other hand – с другой стороны; 2 resolution – разложение;

3 component – составляющая.

Text 4

The first steam-engine to do useful work was in England. The growing coal-mining industry was in need of a mean for raising water from mines, a means more efficient than manual or horse-drawn devices. So engineering thought turned to the possibility of using steam for the purpose.

Small steam-turbines were employed in the United States in 1835 to drive the rotary saws – at sawmills. But it was in the latter half of century that rapid progress began in developing steam-turbines. There were several reasons for this. First, more knowledge had been gained about the movement of gases. Secondly, more machines had been developed that needed fast rotary movement. This need increased particularly with the invention of the power generator, with its swiftly revolving rotor. The steam-turbine became linked to the generator in a single unit called a turbogenerator.

Soviet Russia produced its first turbogenerator in 1924.