Cambridge

Cambridge is one of the two main universities of England which is located at the Cam River. it was founded at the beginning of the 12^th century. The university consists of 24 different colleges including 4 colleges for women. Each college is self-governing.

The head of the university is the chancellor who is elected for life. The teachers are commonly called dons and tutors. Part of the teaching is by means of lectures organized by the university. Besides lectures teaching is carried out by tutorial system for which Cambridge University is famous all over the world. This is a system of individual tuition.

Each student has a tutor who practically guides him through the whole course. The tutor plans the student’s work and once a week the student goes to his tutor to discuss his work with him. The training course lasts 4 years. The academic year is divided into 3 terms. The students study natural and technical sciences, law, history, languages, geography and many other subjects.

After three years of study a student may proceed to a Bachelor’s degree, and later to the master degrees and doctor. Students are required to wear gowns at lectures, in the university library, in the street and for official visits. All the students must pay for their education, examinations, books, laboratories, university hostel, the use of libraries.

Very few students get grants. Not many children from the working class may stude here becouse cost is to high.

Many well-known scientists and writers studied at Cambridge. Among them are: Erasmus, the great Dutch scholar, Bacon the philosopher, Milton and Byron, the poets, Cromwell, the soldier, Newton and Darwin, the scientists.

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Кембридж

Кембридж - один из двух основных университетов Англии, которая расположена в Реке Бегунка. это было основано в начале 12-ого столетия. Университет состоит из 24 различных{wотличных} колледжей, включая 4 колледжа для женщин. Каждый колледж является самоуправляющимся.

Головка университета - канцлер, который избран для жизни. Преподавателей обычно называют donsи обучающими программами. Часть обучения - посредством лекций, организованных университетом. Помимо обучения лекций выполнен обучающей программой, которой Университет Кембриджа является известным во всем мире. Это - система индивидуального обучения.

Каждый студент имеет обучающую программу, кто фактически ведет его через целый курс. Обучающая программа планирует работу студента, и один раз в неделю студент идет в его обучающую программу, чтобы обсудить его работу с ним. Курс обучения длится 4 года. Академический год разделен на 3 срока{термина;условия}. Студенты изучают естественные и технические науки, закон, хронологию, языки, географию и много других тем.

После трех лет изучения студент может перейти к Степени бакалавра, и позже к главным степеням{градусам} и доктору. Студенты обязаны носить платье в лекциях, в университетской библиотеке, в проходе и для официальных посещений. Все студенты должны заплатить за их образование, экспертизы, книги, лаборатории, университетское общежитие, использование библиотек.

Очень немного студентов получают предоставления. Не много дочерних записей от рабочего класса могут, studeздесьbecouseстоимость к высоко.

Много известных ученых и программ{устройств} записи учились в Кембридже. Среди них: Эрасмас, большой голландский ученый, Бекон философ, Милтон и Байрон, поэты, Кромвелл, солдат, Ньютон и Дарвин, ученые.

Charles Babbage

Charles Babbage was born in1791 in Teeing mouth, Devonshire UK and died in 1871. He founded the British Association's Statistical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society. He took no part in 'the divorce between academic science and engineering practice'. He loved practical science, and was among the first to apply higher mathematics to certain commercial and industrial problems.

Babbage invented such things as the cowcatcher, dynamometer, standard railroad gauge, uniform postal rates, occulting lights for lighthouses, Greenwich time signals, heliograph ophthalmic scope.

Babbage's love of numbers was well known. He wanted to quantify everything. He would preserve any fact, simply because he thought 'the preservation of any fact might be useful. In Mechanics Magazine in 1857 Babbage published a Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breaking of Plate Glass Windows" detailing 464 breakages, of which 'drunken men, women, or boys' were responsible for 14. Babbage thought the table would be 'of value in many respects'.

He proposed that an effort be made to produce Tables of Constants of Nature and Art', which would contain all those facts expressed by numbers in the various sciences and arts.

Charles Babbage is known as the 'Father of Computing' for his contributions to the basic design of the computer.

Babbage designed his mechanical computer, the Difference Engine, in the early 1820s. It was a special purpose device intended for the production of tables. Although never completed by Babbage, the Difference Engine was intended to be a machine with a 20-decimal capacity that could solve mathematical problems. The Difference Engine calculated by Newton's method of successive differences, and could even accomplish 'operations of human intellect' by motive power.

Babbage also made plans for another machine, the Analytical Engine. It was designed to perform all arithmetic operations efficiently. However, Babbage didn't build it. The Analytical Engine is considered to be the mechanical precursor of the digital computer. It embodied most of the key concepts: the capacity to store instructions, the use of punched cards as a primitive memory, and the ability to print, which we now take for granted.

The limitations of Newtonian physics might have prevented Babbage from completing any Analytical Engine. He did not know the advances of Maxwell (and could not know those of Boltmann, Godel, and Heisenberg). Though he knew Fourier socially, Babbage did not seem to grasp the importance of his 1811 work on heat propagation. Nor did he seem to know of Joule's efforts with heat and mechanical energy.

The reversibility of attraction is a baste tenet of Newtonian mechanics. A body, or piece of information, may retrace its path and return to where it started. In Babbage's design for the Analytical Engine, the discrete functions of mill (in which 'all operations are performed') and store (in which all numbers are originally placed, and, once computed, are returned) rely on this supposition of reversibility.

In his 1824 essay on heat, Camot formulated the first quantitative expression of irreversibility, by showing that a heat engine cannot convert all supplied heat energy into mechanical energy. Part of it is converted to useful work, but most is expelled into a low-temperature reservoir and is wasted.

From this came William Thomson's discovery of the Second Law of Thermodynamics in 1852, and Rudolf Clausius' discovery of entropy in 1865. In ideal, reversible processes, entropy remains constant. But in others, as Eddington showed with his 'arrow of time', entropy only increases. That means information cannot be shuttled between mill and store without leaking, like faulty sacks of flour. Babbage did not consider this, and it was perhaps his greatest obstacle to building the engine.

It is easy to forget that Babbage was essentially a child of the Enlightenment, and that his epoch was much different from our own. He lived in an era of wood and coal, and the en of electronics would begin many years after his death.