2. Metaphors

Metaphor is a stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects, i.e. when an author identifies two objects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. (1) Furthermore, metaphor can be defined as the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. Therefore, it is one of the most potent means of creating images, sensory perceptions of abstract notions. Consequently, to create an image means to bring a phenomenon from highly abstract to essentially concrete.

According to V.V. Vinogradov, "a metaphor, if it is not a cliche, is an act of establishing an individual world outlook, it imposes on the reader a subjective view of the object or phenomenon and its semantic ties".

The metaphoric use of the word begins to affect the dictionary meaning, adding to it fresh connotations or shades of meaning. Furthermore, a metaphor is a power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously.

In his chapter I have touched upon the basic theories and concepts behind metaphors, and how they influence both the language we use and the world around.

The main focus of this work is to show how metaphors can be used, not only subconsciously, but also intentionally, in order to avoid talking about certain subjects, or to create a certain cognitive connotations in the reader's mind. The fact that certain type of people value different things in a different manner is taken into consideration. One sentence can be interpreted as having two different meanings, which in turn is what a journalist  intends to do. It is also shown, how metaphors can demonize, or make people think differently.

2.1. Traditional classification

According to I.A. Galperin, metaphors can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Genuine metaphors are unpredictable and belong to language in action. Trite metaphors are commonly used in speech and can be registered in dictionaries as expressive means, therefore, belong to language as a system.

2.1.1. Genuine metaphors

Any metaphor is created as a genuine one as it reveals the author's individual perception of the world around. All genuine metaphors can arouse emotions; and, therefore, are mostly to be found in emotive prose and poetry. Genuine metaphors that loose their emotional colouring are likely to become trite.

Qaddafi, his family and his regime are fighting for their lives, and these are far-off consequences that only begin to matter if they survive in power. (February 28, 2011, the New York Times)

Critics of the authorities fear that roadblocks are being put in the way of students so their votes can be stolen, among a host of other potential violations. (December 2, 2011, the New Tork Times)

2.1.2. Trite (dead) metaphors

Trite metaphors are generally used as expressive means in newspaper articles and help the writer to enliven his work and make the meaning more concrete. Due to constant interaction between genuine and trite metaphors and through constant repetitions, genuine metaphors become trite. The metaphoric use of a word may as well affect the source meaning so that the target meaning may oust the source meaning.

But, at the same time, I believe that it is naïve to think that we can be humanitarians only from the air — and now we just hand the situation off to NATO, as if it were Asean and we were not the backbone of the NATO military alliance, and we’re done. (March 29, 2011, The New York Times)

2.1.3. Prolonged (sustained) metaphors

The device comprising a metaphor which primary meaning has been re-established alongside with the derivative meaning is called a sustained metaphor. The principal image of the metaphor may be called the central image of the sustained metaphor and the other words bearing reference to it - contributory images. Trite metaphors may regain their freshness through the process of prolongation of the metaphor. Though, genuine metaphors may also be developed through a number of contributory images so that the utterance becomes one sustained metaphor.

I don’t know Libya, but my gut tells me that any kind of decent outcome there will require boots on the ground — either as military help for the rebels to oust Qaddafi as we want, or as post-Qaddafi peacekeepers and referees between tribes and factions to help with any transition to democracy. (March 29, 2011, The New York Times)

2.2. Alternative classification

Lakoff and Johnson published their work "Metaphors We Live By"  in the year 1980. They discovered that metaphors, contrary to what was thought throughout the years, are actually a matter of a thought not just of a language. They are responsible for our thinking, they govern our cognition and also they are present in our speech.

Lakoff and Johnson distinguish three types of metaphors in their work. These are the ontological metaphor, the orientational metaphor, and the structural metaphor and my aim is to touch upon each type in order to single out the main differences.

2.2.1 Ontological metaphors

Ontological metaphors are based on the notion of a container. Something can be in, or out of the container. It can be overflowing, or be empty. All these states are used in such expressions as e.g. to be IN love, to SPILL the beans, to have a FALLING OUT etc. The examples are numerous. One can immediately see the frequency of use of these expressions. 

High gas prices also sends inflation over the roof (www.democraticunderground.com)

Rick Perry warned during an appearance in Iowa that President Obama has driven the nation's economy into a ditch (August 27, 2011, Lubbock-Avalanche-Journal www.lubbockonline.com)

GOP presidential hopefuls take us down an economic rabbit hole (October 14, 2011, The Seattle Times)

House members in the know score ‘abnormal’ stock profits, study says (May 25, 2011, The Washington Times)

2.2.2. Orientational metaphor

The orientational metaphor is based on the three-dimensional space. The direction, whether it is left or right, up or down, are used in this type of metaphor, based on Anglo-Saxon culture. For example, the direction of right is associated with good. It is even reflected in the language e.g. something is right i.e. it is the correct way to do it. Christians believe that after dying they will be placed on the right hand side of God. On the opposite side of the spectrum, we have got the left, which in some cultures is treated as mischievous. People who were left handed were frowned upon. A similar situation can be observed with the up – down dimensions. In the European culture, which is mostly catholic, up is associated with salvation.

The fall of Saddam opened the way for Iraq's Shi'ite majority community to ascend to positions of power after decades of oppression under his Sunni-run Baath party. (December 14, 2011, Reuters)

Dater: Realignment proposals at top of NHL agenda. (April 12, 2011, www.denverpost.com)

Sammy Ameobi: 'I look up to him so much. I want to be the complete man, like he is' (October 10, 2011, The Independent)

All those are metaphorical expressions associated with the three-dimensional space. Down, on the other hand, is considered evil, and bad. It is negative in the sense that we say e.g.

Why Look Down on a Business Degree? (April 17, 2011, The New York Times)

In Catholicism down is where Hell and the Devil are. God has cast him down beneath the earth. Another example is giving someone the so called thumbs up when we approve, and the thumbs down when we disapprove.

Takeover wins thumbs up from Transatlantic's biggest shareholder. (November 21, 2011, The Wall Street Journal)

Financial markets gave the thumbs down on Monday to a landmark EU deal to deepen economic integration, pushing European stocks and the euro lower as investors judged its debt crisis would continue to deepen. (December 12, 2011, Reuters)

This metaphor is also used in mass-media to great extent. However, one must have some knowledge of the world at large in order for this type of metaphorical utterances to work. In Christian faith death is considered as the end of life on Earth, however in Hindu cultures it is only a temporary stage in the cycle of dying and rebirth. This shows the importance of categorization in metaphors.

2.2.3. Structural metaphor

The last type of metaphor that Lakoff and Johnson introduce in their work is the structural metaphor. This is, according to the authors, the most complex of the three types. The concept of domains is introduced which is divided into target and source domains. For instance, in the phrase "argument is war" the target domain of argument is described by means of the source domain of war, where war is compared to an argument. According to Lakoff and Johnson "we talk about arguments that way because we conceive of them that way - and we act according to the way we conceive things" (1). Thus we say about defending our arguments, attacking the positions of the opponent etc. Metaphors make it easier for us to visualize and apprehend the concept of arguing.

Lakoff introduced the following assumptions concerning the metaphors:

• States are locations (bounded regions in space) e.g. full of.

• Changes are movements (into or out of bounded regions) e.g. fallen in love.

• Actions are self-propelled movements. The gloomier economic outlook also spread to the UK, where British consumer morale hit its lowest in almost three years in December as households' became much more pessimistic on the outlook for the next 12 months, a survey from researchers GfK NOP showed. (December 21,2011, the Reuters)

• Purposes are destinations. Fighters head towards showdown with pro-Gaddafi town (September 7, 2011, Reuters)

• Means are paths to destinations. It is through hard work that we will achieve success.

• Difficulties are impediments to motion We have really hit rock bottom. This is a disgrace. (December 21, 2011, the Reuters)

• External events are large, moving objects "We will fight to have this democratic decision honoured," said Allen Oberg, an Alberta farmer and the CWB's chairman. "We will not sit back and watch this federal government steamroll over farmers." (September 12, 2011, Reuters)

3. Metonymy

This chapter is focusing at metonymy and it's basic attributes. Galperin determines metonymy as a stylistic device based on the principle of substitution of one object for another, i.e. when an author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of independence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects.

According to Lakoff, metonymy is created when one conceptual entity, known as target, is understood by means of another conceptual entity, called as vehicle, which happens in one Ideal Conceptual Model.

Contextual metonymy is a genuine type of metonymy when language is presented in action. Therefore, it reveals quite an unexpected substitution of one word for another, or one concept for another, on the ground of some strong impression produced by a chance feature of the thing. In order to decipher the true meaning of the stylistic device a broad context is required. Metonymy while presenting one object to our mind does not exclude the other one and, therefore, both images are perceived by the mind simultaneously.

Types of metonymy are numerous, and in this chapter I am focusing on the basic approaches to the stylistic device.

• The first type can be described as substituting the concept of a producer by using the name of his product.

Into this mix dived Otto Wacker, a gay dancer turned art dealer, who in 1925 produced a cache of 33 previously unknown Van Goghs. (The Wall Street Journal, «Van Gogh's Strange Afterlife», May, 4, 2012)