Index

a, 377

Abbott, B., 125, 136, 148 n6 abduction, 724–41

coherence, 244 context, 217

explanations, 549, 727–32 interpretation as abduction (IA),

731–40

language and knowledge, 724–5 logic as language of thought, 725–6 non-monotonic logic, 726–7 relevance theory, 739–40

weighted abduction, 731 abnormality conditions, 726–7 aboutness, 74–5

accepts, 599

access principle, 662–3 accommodation,

context, 214, 478

presupposition, 36, 41, 45–6, 47, 50, 51, 134–5, 730

Ackerman, F., 438

acknowledgments, 64, 372, 467, 484 n4 action schemas, 583–4

activated referents, 388 adjacency pairs, 370

adjective phrase preposing, 417 adjectives, 492, 495–7, 499–500, 501 adverb preposing, 417

adverbs, “subcategorized,” 439–40 affective dimension, 65 affectivity, 711

affordances, 106 after all, 553–60

diachronic development, 556–60 present-day situation, 554–6

agreements, 587, 595, 596, 599 AI see artificial intelligence AIS see Algorithm Is Sufficient Ajjanagadde, V., 741

Akan, 294 Akmajian, A., 677

Alexandersson, J., 598

Algorithm Is Sufficient (AIS), 280–3, 287 n18

Allan, K., 56

Allen, J., 581, 583, 584, 593 Allen, S., 437

Allwood, J., 596

Alston, W., 62–3 ambiguity, 36–8

avoidance, 300–1 anaphora, 288–314, 313 n1

deep and surface anaphora, 385–6, 402–3 nn4–5

definition, 288–9 Dowty–Reinhart analysis, 300–1 generative approaches to binding,

289–96

indexicality, 101, 103, 119 Levinson–Huang analysis, 301–4 neo-Gricean pragmatic theory, 296–300 pitch accent and, 528–9

revised theory, 304–10, 312–13

so, 383, 384, 394–7, 403 n11 unexpectedness, 310–12 verb-phrase ellipsis, 391–4

and, 18–19, 232, 236, 479–80 Andersen, E., 573 Anderson, A., 590, 591t, 593 Anderson, S., 116, 117 Annamalai, E., 296 anomaly, 495, 502–3, 506

Anscombre, J.-C., 227–9, 699 n25 antonymy, 703

Anttila, A., 507

Anttila, R., 550

any, 414–15, 717, 720 applied pragmatics, 478–84

assertion fallacy, 479

logical expressions, 479–84, 486 nn23–4 speech act fallacy, 478–9

appreciations, 598 Apresjan, J., 350, 353 argument structure, 427–41

argument omission, 434–7, 441 n8 information structure, 429–30, 433–4,

441 nn3–6

obligatory adjuncts, 437–40, 441 n10 Preferred Argument Structure, 430–2 sentence focus (SF) constructions,

432–3 terminology, 427–8

Argumentation Theory (AT), 227–9, 240 n9, 723 n2

Ariel, M., 122, 123, 137 Aristotle, 14

Arnold, J., 433, 441 n3 Arnovick, L., 538 Aronoff, M., 501

artificial intelligence (AI), 73, 724, 725, 726–7, 729

see also computational linguistics Asher, N., 210, 216, 245, 263 n4 asides, 375–6

assertion, 26 n5, 31–3, 37, 46–7, 50, 51–2 n3

assertion fallacies, 479 assessments, 595

AT see Argumentation Theory at all, 710, 719

at least, 681–3, 698 n15 Atkins, B., 350, 362 n15

Atlas, J., 18, 34–8, 39, 40, 41–2, 44, 45, 48, 51, 52 n5, 503, 714, 718–19

attention, 102, 106, 180, 193 n8, 563–5 Austin, J., 54–8, 59, 62, 64, 66, 443,

462 n2, 463, 464, 466, 469, 484 n4,

671

Van der Auwera, J., 545 Avesani, C., 531

Avoid Synonymy, 501 avoidance ambiguity, 300–1 Axia, G., 575

Ayers, G., 531

Bach, E., 402 n1

Bach, K., 6, 8, 21, 22, 28 n15, 28 n17, 63–4, 70, 73, 92, 131, 226–7, 229, 452, 482, 484 n2, 484–5 n4,

485–6 nn14–15, 640, 641, 650–1, 654 n1, 654 n5

back-channels, 587, 595, 599 Baker, C., 311, 713, 740 Ball, C., 195 n21

Ballmer, T., 65

Ban on Conflicting Empathy Foci, 316, 317, 318

Bar-Hillel, Y., xi, 445, 446 Barcan Marcus, R., 85 Barcelona, A., 550

Bard, E., 530 Baroni, M., 575 Barsalou, L., 618 Barton, E., 267, 276

Barwise, J., 130, 139, 140–1, 142–3, 149 n10, 160, 452

basic markers, 223 Bates, E., 574–5

BDI model see plan inference (BDI) model of speech act interpretation

because, 229, 232 behabitives, 64, 467, 484 n4 Bell, A., 595

Benveniste, E., 550 Berg, J., 649 Berlin, B., 72 Bertolet, R., 70, 95

binding theory, 327, 332–6, 342–3 n9 condition A, 289, 290–2, 293–5, 302,

391–2

condition B, 289, 292–5, 302, 308

binding theory (cont’d )

condition C, 289, 295–6, 302, 391–2 principle A, 338

principle B, 338, 339 principle C, 331, 332–40 problems, 290–6 semantic/argument-structure

approach, 289–90 syntactic/geometric approach, 289,

314 n5

Birner, B., 93, 122, 131, 136, 158, 165, 171, 185

Black, B., 578, 581, 588

Blackburn, W., 129–30

Blakemore, D., 223, 224, 227, 230, 231, 237, 238–9, 554

Bland, S., 180

Blass, R., 238, 554, 559 Blutner, R., 496, 505, 507 Boër, S., 39, 68, 477 Boersma, P., 512 Bohnemeyer, J., 115

Bolinger, D., 73, 136–7, 184, 518, 533 Borg, E., 649, 652–3

bottom-up process, 459–60 boundary tones, 516 Brazilian Portuguese, 435, 436 break index tier, 516

break indices, 516, 516f, 517f Bréal, M., 539, 550

Breheny, R., 654 n5

Brennenstuhl, W., 65 bridging, 135 Brinton, L., 539

Briscoe, T., 350, 352, 356, 362 n20, 503

Bromberger, S., 274 Brown, G., 530, 531, 532 Brown, P., 71, 436 Buchler, J., 367

Bühler, K., 102, 103, 111

Bunt, H., 578, 581, 588 Burge, T., 128, 129 Büring, D., 182, 194 n17

Burzio, L., 293, 294, 295, 309, 310

but, 223, 224, 225–8, 231, 233, 235, 236, 458–9

Butterworth, B., 531 by, 169–70

Cacoullous, R., 441 n8 Cahn, J., 529 Campbell, J., 8 cancelability, 38–9 Carberry, S., 286 n9 Carletta, J., 593 Carlson, G., 139 Carlson, L., 209 Carnap, R., 444–6 Carroll, J., 14

Carston, R., 14, 230, 237, 455, 457, 480, 654 n5, 656 n10

categorical statements, 144 causal theory of names, 86–7 Centering Theory, 180, 202 CG see common ground

Chafe, W., 177, 378, 382 n8, 436 Chao, W., 253

Chao, Y. R., 175 charity, 451

Charniak, E., 729, 730, 731, 732, 740 Chastain, C., 145

checks, 580, 593, 594, 595, 598 Chierchia, G., 13

Chinese, 372

anaphora, 290, 291, 295, 303, 304, 312 argument ellipsis, 436

definiteness, 148 n2 language acquisition, 576 tense, 115

topic, 175, 186

Chomsky, N., 60, 75, 96, 158, 176, 236, 288, 289, 312, 313 n2, 314 n5, 327, 332, 336, 421, 700 n40

Chouinard, M., 564, 565 Christophersen, P., 131, 132 Chu-Carroll, J., 536, 601 Church, A., 88 circumscriptive reference, 399 Clark, E., 349, 350, 564, 565 Clark, H., 132, 349, 350 Clarke, D., 561 n8

cleft, 417 Clines, F., 12

cognitive linguistics, 657–74 cognitive dimensions, 65

cognitive status, 137, 387–8, 403 n8 deferred interpretation, 359 n1 opacity and presuppositions, 661–6

performatives, 671–3 pragmatic scales, 673–4

relevance theory, 608–10, 625–8 Turner’s xyz constructions, 659–61,

659f, 661f

word and sentence meanings, 666–71 Cognitive Principle of Relevance, 610,

625–6

Cohen, L. J., 19, 480, 646, 656 n10 Cohen, P., 73, 260, 581, 584 coherence see discourse coherence;

discourse markers: and coherence coherence constraint, 241

coherence relations, 234, 244–5, 734–6 Cause–Effect relations, 247–8, 391,

392

Contiguity relations, 250–1 descriptive adequacy, 244 extraction from conjoined clauses,

254–6, 264–5 nn13–15 neo-Humean classification, 246–51 Occasion, 242–3, 246, 250

Parallel, 242, 246, 248, 263 n6, 391 pronominal reference, 257–60 psychological plausibility, 244 Resemblance relations, 248–50,

263 nn6–7, 390–1, 392–3 Result, 241–2, 246, 247, 391

cohesion, 232–4 come, 117–18

comment see topic and focus: terminology

commentary markers, 223 commissives, 64, 467 common ground (CG),

context, 205, 208, 209, 214, 215, 219 n18 implicature, 504

language acquisition, 563–4, 565–6 language performance, 371–2 presupposition, 41, 42, 43, 44–8 questions, 209, 219 n14

communication, aboutness, 74–5

collateral system, 366, 381 communicative intentions, 53, 469–70,

485 nn7–8

communicative speech acts, 63, 469, 485 n6

indexicality, 97–9

intention, inference, and relevance, 470–2

language acquisition, 562–3 non-literal, 269–70 ostensive-inferential, 611, 628 n5 presumption of optimal relevance, 230,

612, 613

primary system, 366

relevance theory, 472, 485 n12, 610–14, 629 n9

silence, 613

communicative presumption, 63–4 Communicative Principle of Relevance,

612, 613, 626 comparatives, 677, 689 complementizer choice, 410 composition, transfer in, 354–6,

362–3 nn19–21 compositionality, 492, 495–8, 506 comprehension,

relevance and, 226, 614–23 semantic/pragmatic distinction, 634–5 subtasks, 615

computational linguistics, 578–604 coherence relations, 244–5 computational models, 579 cue-based model of speech act

interpretation, 580–1, 587–603, 604 cues, 594–6

plan inference (BDI) model of speech act interpretation, 580, 581–7, 603–4 Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST), 245

speech act interpretation, 578–81 Comrie, B., 116, 311

conceptual blending, 667–8, 667f concomitants, 379–81 concretion, 730

conditional perfection, 498

conjoined clauses, 254–6, 264–5 nn13–15 conjunct constraint, 254

conjunctions, 233–4 see also and; but; so

considerably, 710 consistency, 41

constatives, 54, 55, 56–7, 464 constitutive rules, 60–1, 465 content, 366, 367

presupposed, 209 proferred, 209

content (cont’d ) reference, 94–6

see also context/content distinction context, 197–220

abduction, 217 affordances, 106

common ground, 205, 208, 209, 214, 215, 219 n18

context, semantics, and pragmatics, 197–9, 476–7, 486 n20

de dicto contexts, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83 de re contexts, 78, 81

dynamic interpretation, 203–7 felicity, 199–202, 206 indexicality, 90

intentions in interpretation (language game), 207–17

narrow context, 477 relevance, 216, 219 n20

role in interpretation, 90, 197–8, 452–3, 476–7, 486 n20

situational context, 384 update, 199, 201, 202 wide context, 477

see also context/content distinction context change potential, 204, 206, 478 Context Change Semantics, 205, 206, 478 context/content distinction, 46, 48–50, 51 context propositions, 676

context set, 130, 208 contextual implication, 608 contextual parameters, 280–3 continuers, 372 contradiction, 702 contradictories, 11 contraries, 11

contrariety, 702–3

contrast, 211–12, 213, 311–12, 567–9 convention, 567–9

conventional implicature see under implicature

conventional pragmatics, 428 conversational implicature,

and abduction, 730 definition, 50 exploitation, 8

generalized/particularized dichotomy, 4–6, 25–6 n2, 26 n4, 477, 486 n22

and lexical pragmatics, 490, 503–6, 507

maxims, 7–8, 9, 13, 27 nn7–8, 34, 201, 208–9, 471, 540–1

pragmatic licensing, 505, 507 presupposition, 41–4 relevance-theoretic view, 643–8 short-circuited, 13

speaker meaning and inference, 6–8, 424

see also explicit/implicit distinction; implicature

conversational pragmatics, 428 Cooper, R., 139, 140–1, 142–3, 149 n10 Cooper, W., 525

Cooperative Principle, 7, 8, 24, 28 n17, 297, 471, 613

Coordinate Structure Constraint (CSC), 254–6, 264 n13

Copestake, A., 350, 352, 356, 362 n20, 503 Core, M., 593

Corrective Sentence Pattern Requirement, 321–2, 340 n2

correspondence theory of meaning, 74 Coulson, S., 663, 667, 670, 674

Cox, P., 729 Criscuolo, G., 727 Cruse, A., 703

CSC see Coordinate Structure Constraint cue-based model of speech act

interpretation, 580–1, 587–603, 604 cue-based algorithms, 597–603, 600f,

601f cues, 594–6

dialogue acts, 588–90, 591–2t, 593 speech acts, 588

cue markers see discourse markers cues, 594–6

Culy, C., 311

Curl, T., 595 Cutler, A., 587

Dale, R., 234, 244

Dalrymple, M., 251, 252, 383, 392, 395

DAMSL (Dialogue Act Markup in

Several Layers), 588–90

Dative Incorporation, 326, 342 n7

Davidson, D., 280

Davies, M., 130

Davis, W., 26 n4, 28 n19

Davison, A., 67, 68

De Morgan, A., 9 declarative sentences, 417

deferred interpretation (deference), 344–64, 359 n1

conceptual relations, 345–6, 359–60 n3 deferred indexical reference, 361 n7,

361 n10 definition, 344

figuration, 344–5, 359 n2, 549–50, 561 n8 meaning transfer, 346–8, 360–1 nn5–8 noteworthiness, 349–50, 353, 354, 355,

361 n9, 362 nn11–12, 363 nn22–3 as pragmatic phenomenon, 344–5 predicate transfer in systematic

polysemy, 350–1, 357, 362 n15 semantics or pragmatics?, 351–4 “sortal crossings,” 357–9, 363–4 n24 transfer in composition, 354–6,

362–3 nn19–21 deferred ostension, 105

definiteness and indefiniteness, 122–49, 148 nn1–3

accessibility, 137

definites, 110–11, 112, 122–3 existential sentences, 138–44 false definites, 165, 166 familiarity, 132–7, 148 n7 grammatical definiteness, 136 indefinites, 122, 123–4, 145 novelty, 134

specificity, 144–7, 149 n17 uniqueness, 125–32, 135–7, 148 n4

definites, 110–11, 112, 122–3 deictic origo, 102, 103, 111, 112 deixis, 97–121

demonstrative systems, 107–11, 108f expressions, 103–7, 112

fields, 111–21

and indexicality, 97, 100–1, 675–6, 687, 697 n1

terminology, 97

see also discourse markers; indexicality Dekker, Paul, 147, 508, 513 n10 demonstratives, 98–9, 102–3, 107–11,

108f, 112, 116–17, 128, 453–4 described situation, 104 descriptions, theory of, 82–4

de dicto contexts, 82, 83

incomplete descriptions, 128–31, 148 n5

“non-unique” definite descriptions, 131–2, 148 n6

presuppositionality, 126–7 quantificational phrases, 482–3 reference, 92, 127–8, 486 n25 uniqueness, 125–6, 148 n4

descriptive meaning, 457–8 descriptive semantics, 444–5 Descriptor Empathy Hierarchy, 316,

317

determiners, 110–11, 112, 142 Devin, J., 573

diachronic pragmatics, 538–9 dialogue acts, 588–90, 591–2t, 593 dictionaries, 345, 351, 362 n15 Diesing, M., 143, 145

Diessel, H., 107, 108–9, 112, 117 van Dijk, T., 245–6

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 18–19 direct discourse perspective, 329–40 direct entailment, 31

direction of fit, 65 directives, 467

discourse coherence, 241–65, 263 n1 coherence relations, 234, 243–6, 390–1,

734–6

computational linguistics perspectives, 244–5

discourse markers, 232–9 informational coherence, 260–1 intentional coherence, 260–1 linguistic case studies, 251–60 neo-Humean classification, 246–60 psycholinguistics perspectives, 245–6 theoretical linguistics perspectives,

243–4

discourse connectives see discourse markers

discourse cues, 596 discourse deixis, 118–19 discourse entities, xii, 96

discourse function of gapping, 390 discourse markers (DM), 221–40

Argumentation Theory, 227–9, 240 n9, 723 n2

and coherence, 232–9

as conventional implicatures, 222–7 intonation and accent, 532 meaning, 222–32

discourse markers (DM) (cont’d ) Relevance Theory, 229–31, 237, 238,

239

terminology, 221–2, 223, 239 discourse model, 384 discourse-new, 386–7, 429 discourse-old, 132, 386–7, 429 discourse operators see discourse

markers

discourse particles see discourse markers discourse referents, 205–6, 215, 216 Discourse Representation Theories, 205,

206, 216, 219 n21 discourse segments, 399 discourse-status, 386–7

discourse structure, 416–20, 425 n8, 734–7

disjoint reference presumption, 303 display, 367–9

Division of Pragmatic Labor, 16–17, 27 n12, 509, 510, 542

Dixon, R., 113, 430, 439 DM see discourse markers doctrine of infelicities, 56–7 dolphin-safe etc., 669 domain goals, 210, 215

donkey sentences, 132–4, 148 n8, 203–5 Donnellan, K., 85, 86, 92–3, 127–8,

129–30, 146, 482 Donno So, 311 Downing, P., 349 Dowty, D., 300–1, 354 Doyle, J., 9, 726 Dretske, F., 190

Du Bois, J., 131, 132, 430, 431, 436, 441 n1 Ducrot, O., 227–9, 459, 673, 698 n24,

699 n25 Dummett, M., 80

Dutch, 235, 291, 307, 716 dynamic interpretation, 203–7

Dynamic Montague Grammar, 205, 267, 287 n15

Eady, S., 525 echoic use, 621

effective dimension, 65 effectives, 467 elaboration/set-member, 213 element constraint, 254

ellipsis,

argument omission, 436–7, 441 n8 non-sentences, 272–9

semantic, 274, 275, 277–9, 287 n15 syntactic, 273–4, 275–9, 286–7 nn11–14,

640–1

verb phrase ellipsis, 251–4,

263–4 nn8–12, 276, 383, 384, 391–4, 403 n10

elliptically speaking, 272–3, 275, 286 n9 Elugardo, R., 276, 287 n16, 641, 655 n6 emblems, 380

empathy, 316

empathy perspective, 315–28 principles, 315–25

and reflexive pronouns, 326–8 emphaticness, 311–12

Enç, M., 106, 116, 145 entailment, 6, 26n5, 34, 41

direct entailment, 31

first background entailment (FBE), 390 ordered entailment, 390

pragmatic entailments, 704 presupposition, 31–3, 34, 41, 43, 52 n4 scalar, 704

Erteschik-Shir, N., 180, 193–4 n8, 434 Ervin-Tripp, S., 563, 574

Evans, G., 86, 87, 296 even, 4, 697 n9, 716, 723 n2 event reference, 383–402

constraints in discourse, 384–8 eventualities, 383, 388–401, 402 n1 terminology, 383, 402 n1

Ewe, 118 exclamatives, 594 exercitives, 64

existential sentences, 138

generalized quantifier approach, 140–1 Keenan’s analysis, 142 presuppositionality, 142–4,

149 nn13–14

weak/strong distinction, 138–40 explicature, 19–21, 473–4

ad hoc concept construction, 641–3 comprehension, 614–15, 617, 620, 623,

629 n10, 630 n18 definition, 635, 654 n4 disambiguation, 636–8, 733–4

free enrichment, 639–41, 654–5 n5

saturation, 636–8

semantics, and “What is said,” 648–53, 656 n11

explicit/implicit distinction, 633–56 conversational implicatures, 643–5,

655 n8

decoding/inferring, 634–6, 654 n2, 654 n4

explicature or “generalized” conversational implicature?, 645–8, 655–6 nn9–10

see also explicature exploitation, 8 expositives, 64 expression types, 269, 448

extraposition, 166–8, 173, 413, 417, 420

factive presuppositions, 34–6 fake, 670–1

falsity, 57 Faltz, L., 294

familiar referents, 388 familiarity, 132, 148 n7

assumed familiarity, 154, 155–6 donkey sentences, 132–4, 148 n8 unfamiliar definites and

accommodation, 134–5 and uniqueness, 135–7

Farley, P., 255

Farmer, A., 303

Fauconnier, G., 12, 350, 360 n6, 663, 667, 668, 669, 670, 673, 704, 711, 712–13

FBE (first background entailment), 390 felicity, 199–202, 206

Fellbaum, C., 439 few, 719, 720, 721 Fiengo, R., 264 n12

figuration, 344–5, 359 n2, 549–50, 561 n8, 587, 619, 621, 738

Fijian, 113, 292

File Change Semantics, 133–4 fillers, 376

Fillmore, C., 103, 114, 144, 145, 354, 362 n15, 697 n2, 698 n11, 700 n33

final lowering, 532 Finnish, 183, 185

first background entailment (FBE), 390 Flaubert triggers, 719

focus, 176, 193 n3, 428 information structure, 157–8

information vs. contrastive, 181–3, 194 n14

interpretation, 213, 219 n15 and intonation, 161, 182, 183–5,

194 n16, 195 n18, 530–2 preposing, 160–1, 173–4 nn4–5 see also topic and focus

Fodor, Janet, 145, 146, 147

Fodor, Jerry, 281, 488–9, 491, 492, 624 Fogelin, R., 15

Fong, V., 507

force indicators, 268, 269 formal semantics, 222, 442–3 foundational semantics, 445 Van Fraassen, B., 31, 32 Frajzyngier, Z., 311

Francis, W. N., 163, 166, 169, 392 Fraser, B., 65, 222, 223–4, 232, 555, 686 free enrichment, 460, 639–41, 654–5 n5 free variable view, 496–7

Frege, G., 29–33, 51–2 n3, 76–82, 99, 126–7, 442, 474, 487 n25, 492

Freidin, R., 336 French,

acknowledgments, 372 anaphora, 295

après tout, 554

argument structure, 430, 432 discourse markers, 227 negation, 699 n25

polarity, 703, 716 polysemy, 353, 362 n17

Fretheim, T., 183, 188, 195 n23, 196 n25 Frisian, 308

From-Old-To-New Principle, 326, 342 n5, 342 n7

functional view, 496 fundamental frequency, 516

Gabbay, D., 147

Von der Gabelentz, G., 175

gapping, 262, 383, 384, 388–91, 402 n2 Gawron, M., 265 n15

Gazdar, G., 424, 425, 446, 656 n10 Geach, P., 85, 133, 203

Geis, M., 498, 499, 513 n4, 540, 552 generalized quantifiers, 139–41

German,

aber/sondern, 699 n25 acknowledgments, 372 anaphora, 292 argument structure, 430 deixis, 116, 120

ellipsis, 277 polarity, 72, 703 weil, 553

gesture,

collateral gestures, 379–81 iconic gestures, 380

indexicality, 91–2, 96 n1, 98, 102–3, 108–10, 108f, 111

language acquisition, 98–9, 102, 110, 569–70

pointing, 91–2, 96 n1, 98, 102–3, 111, 226, 569–70

Geurts, B., 655 n9 Gibson, J., 106, 121 n1 Gigerenzer, G., 624 Ginzburg, J., 208

Given A generalization, 430–2 Givenness Hierarchy, 137, 177, 387–8 given–new distinctions, 176–9, 529–30 Givón, T., 436, 706–7

Glucksberg, S., 631 n21 go, 118

Gödel, K., 88 Godfrey, J., 593 Goffman, E., 373–4 Goldberg, A., 435, 438 Goldman, R., 731, 732 Goldsmith, J., 255 Golinkoff, R., 562

Goodwin, C., 380, 588, 595 Goodwin, M., 380

Gordon, D., 69, 422, 580, 581 gradable adjectives, 499–501 Graff, D., 148 n3

grammar, 407–26, 441 n1 belief/attitude/value cases, 412–16 constructional approaches, 675, 697 n5,

700 n40; see also grammatical constructions

discourse structure, 416–20, 425 n8 extraposition, 420

heavy NP shift, 420–1

illustrative phenomena, 408–12, 425 n5

microgrammar, 588, 595

pragmatic information, 407–8, 409f, 476

speech acts and, 66–8 syntactic constructions, 421–5,

426 nn14–16

Transformational Grammar (TG), 66 universal grammar, 254

grammatical constructions, 675–700 illocutionary forces and speaker

attitudes, 677, 692–6, 700 n34 metalinguistic constructions, 687–92 non-scalar contextual operators

(NSCOs), 683–7

and pragmatics, 675–8, 696, 697 n5, 700 n40

scalar models, 676, 678–83, 698 n11, 704, 723 n1

grammaticalization, 441 n1 Green, G., 424 Greenlandic Eskimo, 353

see also West Greenlandic Gregory, M., 430

Grice, H. P.,

on implicature, 3–4, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 18, 24, 25, 26–7 n6, 26 n3, 28 n15, 43, 91, 224, 269, 297, 458, 468, 474, 476, 540, 621, 623–4, 636–7, 648–9, 730

logic and conversation, 422, 479–80, 498

on metaphor, 344–5 philosophy of language, 462 n2

on presupposition, xi, 33, 34, 36–9, 42–5, 47, 48

on speech act theory, 58–62, 470–1, 472–3, 485 n7, 551, 607

theory of meaning, 102, 197, 207–8, 297, 443, 463, 479, 484 n1

Grimm, Hannelore, 571

grinding, 350, 352, 353–4, 362 n17, 502–3 Groenendijk, J., 205, 210

Grosu, A., 254

Grosz, B., 216, 257, 261, 532

ground see topic and focus: terminology grounding, 371–2, 565

Guha, R. V., 740

Guindon, R., 246

Gundel, J., 137, 148 n2, 176, 177, 178–9, 180, 182, 185, 187–8, 190, 192,

194 n15, 195 n22, 387–8, 397, 399,

400–1, 403 n8

Haiman, J., 666

Halliday, M., 176, 190, 232–4, 243, 428, 525, 526

Hamilton, W., 9

Han, C.-H., 73

Hankamer, J., 286 n12, 385–6, 389, 391, 393, 394, 402 n4

Hardt, D., 392

Harnish, R., 8, 15, 63–4, 65, 70, 73, 303, 484 n2, 484–5 n4, 486 n23

Harris, Z., 236 Hasan, R., 232–4, 243

Haspelmath, M., 123, 145, 148 n2, 723 n7 Hawkins, J., 126, 130, 136

Hayes, B., 512 hearer-new, 386–7 hearer-old, 386–7 hearer-status, 386–7 heavy NP shift, 417, 420–1 Hebrew, 307, 430, 435 Hedberg, N., 186

hedges, 689–90, 691–2, 699 n29, 699–700 n31

Heim, I., 132–4, 135, 136, 148 n8, 203, 204, 205, 206

Henderson, J., 117 Hernandez, J., 441 n8 Hewitt, C., 726 hiatus, 375

Hidden Markov Models (HMMs), 601–3

Higginbotham, J., 653 Hill, D., 117 Himmelmann, N., 116 Hindi, 435, 441 n9 Hindle, D., 524

Hintikka, J., 73, 95, 462 n3, 583 Hirschberg, J., 12, 173–4 n4, 530, 531–2,

536, 595–6, 723 n1 Hirst, G., 733

historical discourse analysis, 539 historical pragmatics, 538–61

case study: after all, 553–60 language change perspective, 548–52 synchronic perspective, 540–8, 560

HMMs see Hidden Markov Models

Hobbs, J., 217, 229, 238, 241, 244, 246, 250, 257, 263 nn4–5, 730, 731, 740

Hockett, C., 98, 112 Hoffmann, M., 3 holism, 451

honorifics, 119–21, 547, 548 de Hoop, H., 145

Horace, 14

Horn, L., 3, 45, 52 nn4–5, 143–4, 149 n15, 237, 305, 409, 414, 416, 499, 503–4, 510, 541–5, 552, 655 n9, 673, 687–9, 698–9 nn24–25, 703, 705, 706, 708, 714, 723 n5

Horn scales, 703, 704 Hornstein, N., 75 Householder, F., 501 Hovy, E., 234

Huang, Y., 291, 301–4, 306 Huddleston, R., 167

Humanness Empathy Hierarchy, 316 Hume, D., 246

Hungarian, 576

Hyman, L., 311

I principle, 298, 299, 300, 302–4, 305–10, 546–8

IA see under abduction

Ideal Language Philosophy, 442–3, 462 n1

identity sentences, 78–9, 80–1 if, 498–9

illocutionally charged expressions, 393 illocutionary act potential, 62–6, 71 illocutionary acts, 54–6, 57, 58, 59, 60–2,

368, 464, 465, 466, 467 classification, 64–6, 466–7 direct/indirect, 468 explicit/inexplicit, 468–9 literal/non-literal, 468

illocutionary effects, 59, 68, 69–70 illocutionary forces, 465

“conjuring fate,” 693 conventions of usage, 695–6 negative questions, 693

and speaker attitudes, 677, 692–6, 700 n34

tagged questions, 694–5 imperative mood, 209, 447 implicated conclusions, 615

implicated premises, 615 implicature, 3–28

comprehension, 615, 620–1 conventional implicature, 4, 6,

222–7, 269, 458, 474–5, 490,

653–4 n1

conversational implicature see conversational implicature

Cooperative Principle, 7, 8, 24–5, 28 n17, 297, 471, 613

definitions, 3, 635

Division of Pragmatic Labor, 16–17, 27 n12, 509, 510, 542

I principle see I principle

vs. impliciture, 21–4, 469, 473, 485–6 n14, 650

negative implicature, 713–15 pragmatic intrusion, 17–21, 22–3 presupposition and, 36–8

Q principle see Q principle R principle see R principle rationality, 24–5

scalar implicature, 6, 8–10, 12–13, 645–6, 655–6 n9

subtypes, 3–4

two-sided understanding, 10

see also explicature; explicit/implicit distinction

impliciture, 21–4, 469, 473, 485–6 n14, 650

indefiniteness see definiteness and indefiniteness

indefinites, 122, 123–4, 145 indexical expressions, 369, 447–8 indexicality, 97–121

attentional phenomenon, 102 character, 90

in communication, 97–9 context, 90

deferred reference, 361 n7, 361 n10 deixis, 97, 100–1, 675–6, 687, 697 n1 display, 367–9

gesture, 91–2, 96 n1, 98, 102–3, 108–10, 108f, 111

and imperative mood, 447 intentional phenomenon, 102 pure indexicals, 453–4

and reference, 90, 99 terminology, 97, 100–1

in thought, 99–100 token-reflexivity, 99 see also deixis

indirect requests, 580, 581–3 indirect speech acts, 68–71

mood, 73

and politeness, 71, 580 sentence type, 71–3

inertness, assertorical, 26 n5 infelicities, doctrine of, 56–7 inference, 4, 6–8, 424, 470–2, 578 inform, 584

information status, 387, 403 n8 information structure, 153–74, 194 n12

argument reversal, 169–72

and argument structure, 429–30, 433–4, 441 nn3–6

assumed familiarity, 154, 155–6 focus, 157–8

left-dislocation (LD), 162–3, 174 n7, 186–7

and non-canonical syntax, 153–5, 172–3

open propositions (OPs), 156–8 postposing, 154, 155, 163–8, 173 preposing, 154, 155, 158–62, 173 right-dislocation, 168–9, 187, 188–9,

195 n23, 196 n25

see also topic and focus informational account, 737–8 informational uniqueness, 131 Ingush, 294

inserts, 374–6 intention,

deictic expressions, 102, 106 discourse coherence, 260–1 inference and relevance, 470–2 language acquisition, 208, 218 n10,

571–2 reference, 92–3

speech acts, 53, 469–70, 485 nn7–8 intentional account, 737–9

intentions in interpretation (language game), 207–17

intermediate phrase, 516 internal dative construction, 413 interpretive use, 621 intersective adjectives, 495 intersectivity, 142

intonation, 515–37

discourse phenomena, 527–36 focus and, 161, 182, 183–5, 194 n16,

195 n18, 530–2 questions, 73

semantic phenomena, 525–7 syntactic phenomena, 520–1,

523–5

ToBI system, 516–20 try markers, 376–7 intonational phrase, 516 intrinsic connections, 367

Inuktitut, 430, 436 inversion, 417

Invited Inference Theory of Semantic Change, 552–3

irony, 621–2, 623, 631 n27 Israel, M., 673

Italian, 117, 118, 295, 360 n5, 436 Iten, C., 226, 227, 228, 231, 240 n10,

240 n19

Jackendoff, R., 98, 176, 184, 349, 357, 362 n11

Jacobs, A., 538–9

Jäger, G., 509, 510 James, S., 575 Japanese,

acknowledgments, 372 anaphora, 291, 303, 304 argument ellipsis, 436 definiteness, 144, 148 n2 demonstratives, 110 honorifics, 120, 551, 576 language acquisition, 576 main verb inversion, 420 polarity, 716

speaker beliefs, 416 subjectification, 550 topic, 179, 180, 186, 187

Jennings, P., 160

Jesperson, O., 112 joint attention, 563–5

joint commitments, 370 de Jong, F., 142, 143 de Jonge, C., 19 Josephson, J., 729 Josephson, S., 729

Journal of Broadcasting, 419

Jucker, A., 221, 538–9

Jurafsky, D., 579, 582, 590, 593, 594, 595, 598

Justice, David, 700 n31 juxtapositions, 378–9

Kaburaki, E., 316

Kabuverdiano, 307 Kadmon, N., 219 n15, 717 Kalkatungu, 306 Kalokerinos, A., 723 n2 Kameyama, M., 258 Kamp, H., 96, 203, 205, 496 Kannada, 307, 308

Kant, I., 314 n6

Kaplan, D., 85, 90–1, 104, 106, 160, 444, 452, 453

Karttunen, L., 6, 33, 34, 73, 133, 144, 145, 147, 483

Kasher, A., 24, 147

Kasper, R., 218 n4

Katz, J., 66, 446–7, 448, 488–9 Kay, P., 72, 682, 689, 690, 698 n11,

698 nn16–18, 699–700 n31 Keenan, E. L., 116, 117, 141–2, 496 Keenan, E. O., 8, 27 n8

Kehler, A., 246, 253, 256, 258, 262, 265 n15, 384, 389, 390–1, 392, 396

Kempson, R., 36, 40 Kennedy, C., 264 nn11–12 Kim, N.-K., 72

kinda/sorta, 691–2, 699–700 n31 King, J., 145

Kintsch, W., 245–6 Kiparsky, C., 34 Kiparsky, P., 34, 501 Kita, S., 110

Kitis, E., 240 n16

Klima, E., 300, 711 Knott, A., 234, 235, 244 knowledge of hearer, 384 knownness see familiarity Koenig, J.-P., 698 n15 König, E., 307, 308, 558 Korean,

anaphora, 291, 303, 304, 309 argument ellipsis, 436–7 honorifics, 120 non-sentential speech, 277

Korean (cont’d )

sentence types, 72

topic, 179, 187

Kose, Y., 416

Kövecses, Z., 550

Krifka, M., 716

Kripke, S., 83–4, 85–7, 94, 128, 218 n5,

482, 486–7 n25, 649, 690–1

Kukla, R., 285 n5

Kuno, S., 132, 176, 256, 264–5 n14, 316,

330, 337–8, 341 n3

Kuroda, S.-Y., 38, 144, 176, 550

Kwakwa’la, 117

Ladd, D. R., 534

Ladusaw, W., 711–12, 713, 718, 719 Lahav, R., 496

Lakatos, I., 728

Lakoff, G., 69, 190, 255, 264 n13, 350, 421, 422, 580, 581, 689, 698 n23

Lakoff, R., 414

Lambrecht, K., 177, 184–5, 428, 430, 432, 594, 677

Landman, F., 717

Langacker, R., 363 n23, 666–7, 669, 723 n4 language acquisition, 562–77

abduction, 549 anaphora, 288 argument ellipsis, 437

common ground, 563–4, 565–6 contrast, 567–9

convention, 567–9

gesture, 98–9, 102, 110, 569–70 intention, 208, 218 n10, 571–2 joint attention, 563–5 politeness, 574–6

speech acts, 569–71

taking account of addressee, 573 taking turns, 574

language and languages, 462 n4 preplanned, non-interactive, 365 spontaneous, interactive, 365–6

language change see historical pragmatics

language performance, 365–82, 382 n1 coordinating on use of language,

369–73

saying and displaying, 366–9 signals, 366–7, 368, 373–81, 382 n5

Larson, R., 637, 649

Lascarides, A., 210, 216, 245, 263 n4 Lasnik, H., 295

Leacock, C., 345

Lebeaux, D., 332, 334–5, 336 Leech, G., 71, 354

Lees, R., 300

left-dislocation (LD), 162–3, 174 n7, 186–7, 417

Lehiste, I., 531 Leibniz’s law, 77 Lenat, D., 740

let alone, 676, 678–81, 697 n2, 697 n9 levels of meaning, 457

levels of representation, 384–5 Levesque, H., 73

Levin, N., 389–90

Levinson, S., 6, 13, 21–2, 23, 27 n9,

27 n12, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40–2, 43, 44, 45, 48, 50, 51, 68, 71, 107, 118, 222, 292, 297–300, 301–4, 456–7, 486 n19, 486 n22, 500, 503–4, 510, 542, 545–8, 587, 630 n18, 631 n27, 647–8, 655 n9, 656 n10, 700 n32

Lewis, D., xii, 7, 33, 36, 45, 131, 134–5, 198, 207, 209, 450, 455, 456, 478, 730

lexical blocking, 501–3, 506 lexical cues, 594–5

lexical loosening, 618–19, 620, 630 n19 lexical meaning, 488–514

cognition, 666–71

conversational implicature, 490, 503–6 lexicon vs. encyclopedia, 489–90 optimality theory, 506–12

standard view, 491–5; challenges, 495–503

lexical narrowing, 617–18 lexical projections, 267, 285 n3 Lezgian, 307, 437

Liberman, M., 535 licensing,

affectivity, 711

downward entailing (DE), 712, 718–19 Flaubert triggers, 719

Monotonicity Thesis, 712, 713, 715 negative implicature (NI), 713–15 polarity licensing, 711–15 pragmatic, 505, 507

scalar pragmatics, 718–22

Lidz, J., 306, 308 likely, 670

Linebarger, M., 713–14, 715, 722 linguistic semantics, 455–6, 457 linguistic structure, 214

Linsky, L., 84

Literal Force/Meaning Hypothesis, 579–80, 597

Litman, D., 531 litotes, 3, 511 Löbner, S., 148 n5

local pragmatics, 725, 733–4 locative preposing, 417 Lochbaum, K., 395

locutionary acts, 54, 55, 56, 59, 466 logic,

as language of thought, 725–6 non-monotonic, 726–7

square of opposition, 10–12 logical expressions, 479–84

and, 18–19, 232, 236, 479–80 or, 18, 480–1, 486 n23 quantificational phrases and

descriptions, 481–3, 486 n24 logical forms, 455

logophoric NP constraint, 331 logophoricity, 310–11, 329–39 Longacre, R., 243

Longgu, 117, 118

Ludlow, P., 75, 145, 147, 482 Lycan, W., 39, 68, 477 Lyons, C., 136, 148 n2 Lyons, J., 550

M principle, 298, 299–300, 302–4, 305–10, 546–8

Malagasy, 116 Malay, 115, 293, 430 Malinowski, B., 562 Mandelblit, N., 674

Mann, W., 212–13, 233, 245 Mapun, 311

Marcus, M., 524

Markedness Principle for Discourse Rule Violations, 316, 317–18, 321, 325–6

Marshall, C., 132

Martin, J. H., 579, 582, 594 Martin, J. R., 243 Martinich, A., 14, 27 n11

Marty, A., 184

Mathesius, V., 175–6, 342 n5 Matsumoto, Y., 503 Mauritian Creole, 436

Maxim of Quantity-Quality, 15 maximal projection, 267

Maxims of Conversation, 7–8, 9, 13,

27 nn7–8, 34, 201, 208–9, 471, 540–1 Maxims of Relativity, 41

May, R., 264 n12

MCBs (mutual contextual beliefs), 63 McCarthy, J., 506, 726

McCawley, J., 65, 67, 131, 426 n15, 502, 686, 694, 699 n26

McDermott, D., 726, 729 McDowell, J., 80 McGinn, C., 76, 88–9 McKenna, G., 161 meaning, 657–9

Argumentation Theory, 227–9 correspondence theory, 74 descriptive meaning, 457–8 discourse markers, 222–32

Grice’s theory, 102, 197, 207–8, 297, 443, 463, 479, 484 n1

imparted via usage, 93–4

inference and speaker meaning, 6–8, 424

levels of meaning, 457

lexical meaning, 488–514, 666–71 literal vs. speaker’s, 450–3 potential, 661

pragmatic meaning, 457–8 procedural, 223 representational, 223

and speech acts, 446–50, 449f, 462 n5 transfer, 346–8, 360–1 nn5–8

and truth-conditional effects, 189–91 varieties of meaning, 457–61

see also semantics Meinong, A., 82

mental architecture, 623–5 mental spaces, 662–3, 663f, 667 Merin, A., 73

metalinguistic constructions, 687–92 comparatives, 677, 689

hedges, 689–90, 691–2, 699 n29, 699–700 n31

negation, 10, 677, 687–9, 698 n24

metaphor, 344–5, 359 n2, 550, 619, 622, 631 nn21–2, 659–60

see also deferred interpretation metasemantics, 444

metonymy, 345, 348, 550, 733 see also deferred interpretation

Mexican Spanish, 441 n8 Michaelis, L., 430, 594

Mill, J. S., 9, 76, 98, 102, 486–7 n25 Miller, G., 740

Miller, P., 166, 167

Milsark, G., 138–40, 141, 144, 145, 148 n11, 187

miscellaneous tier, 516 Mithun, M., 116 Mittwoch, A., 67

Modesty Principle, 325, 342 n4 modifications, 376–8

Modified Occam’s Razor principle, 10 Moeschler, J., 229, 240 n9 monotonicity,

inferential competence, 492–3, 513 n2 invited inferences, 498–501, 506 lexical system, 493–4, 494f, 501–2, 506 licensing, 712, 713, 715 non-monotonic logic, 726–7

Montague, R., 80, 88, 104, 139, 140, 148 n4, 197, 496

mood, 65, 71–3, 209, 268, 447 mood indicators, 623, 631 n29 Moore, G. E., 478–9

Moore, J., 260, 261 Moore’s paradox, 463–4 moreover, 224, 225 Morgan, C., 71, 729

Morgan, J., 70–1, 422, 424, 425, 426 n15, 695–6

Morimoto, T., 597, 602 Morris, C., xi, 443–4 most, 719–21 motivation, 214

mutual contextual beliefs (MCBs), 63

Nagata, M., 597, 599, 602 naïve theory of reference, 76 Nakatani, C., 529, 532 names, causal theory of, 86–7 Napoli, D., 287 n14

narrow context, 477

Neale, S., 130, 145, 147, 482, 649 negation,

ambiguity, 36–8 contrary readings, 708–9 marked category, 706–7

metalinguistic negation, 10, 677, 687–9, 698 n24

negative implicature, 713–15 negative polarity items (NPIs), 710,

711–12, 713–14, 715–16, 719–22 neg(ative)-raising, 709, 723 n5 negative strengthening, 499–501, 500f,

510–12, 708

negative transportation, 414

and polarity, 415, 701–2, 705–9, 722 presupposition, 31–3, 34–5, 36–8,

51–2 n3

processing, 707–8, 723 n4 questions, 693

reactive nature, 708 Neijt, A., 394 Nerlich, B., 561 n8 Newcombe, N., 575 Newton, I., 728 Nichols, J., 294 Nickerson, J., 536 Nixon diamond, 727 Nølke, H., 555

non-canonical syntax, 153–74 non-controversiality, 41–2, 45, 46–7, 50,

51

non-conventional pragmatics, 428 non-detachability, 40–1 non-literality, 13

non-monotonic logic, 726–7 non-monotonicity, 451, 498–502, 506 non-scalar contextual operators (NSCOs),

683–7 non-sentences, 266–87

appearances, 266–70 ellipsis, 272–9

not a genuine speech act, 271–2, 665 n6 pragmatic explanation, 279–80, 283–5 type, 267–8

Noordman, L., 235, 236, 237

Norvig, P., 350, 730, 731, 738 Norwegian,

anaphora, 291, 307 language acquisition, 576

topic and focus, 183–4, 185, 188–9, 195 n23, 196 n25

noteworthiness, 349–50, 353, 354, 355, 356–7, 361 n9, 362 nn11–12,

363 nn22–3 Nöth, E., 536

noun phrases, 122–4, 148 nn1–3 cardinal, 138

heavy NP shift, 417, 420–1 logophoric NP constraint, 331 quantificational, 138 stage-level properties, 139

see also definiteness and indefiniteness novelty, 134

NPIs see polarity items: negative NSCOs see non-scalar contextual

operators

nuclear accent/stress, 517

Nunberg, G., 105, 350, 361 n7, 503, 675–6

offers, 570–1 O’Hair, S., 15 Ojeda, A., 131 O’Neill, D., 573 only, 718–19

opacity and presuppositions, 661–6 open propositions (OPs), 156–8 opposition, 701–2

optimal relevance, 230

optimality theory and lexical pragmatics, 506–12

or, 18, 480–1, 486 n23 ordered entailment, 390

Ordinary Language philosophy, 442, 443, 462 n2, 478

Oriya, 294 orthographic tier, 516 ostensive stimulus, 611 Ostler, N., 350 overlap, 379

Özyürek, A., 110

parallel markers, 223 parcel of speaking, 375 Parsons, T., 95

Partee, B., 146, 190

passive constructions, 409–10, 417 Passoneau, R., 531

Paul, H., 175

Peacocke, C., 129 Pederson, E., 723 n3

Peirce, C., 99, 102, 103, 367, 729 perception verbs, 489 performance, 366

performance indexes, 367–8, 369, 372, 373

performative hypothesis, 67–8 performatives, 54, 55, 56–7, 464,

484 nn2–3, 671–3 formula, 57–8

and illocutionary force, 465 tacit, 225

Perkins, E., 161

perlocutionary acts, 55–6, 368, 466 perlocutionary effects, 68, 69, 70 Perrault, C. R., 73, 581, 583, 584 Perry, J., 106, 130, 160, 452 Persian, 716

person deixis, 112–14 perspective, 310–11 Peters, S., 6

philosophy of language, 463–87 applied pragmatics, 478–84

semantic–pragmatic distinction, 475–8, 486 nn19–20, 486 n22

speech acts and communication, 469–75

phonetic acts, 368 phrase accents, 516, 517

phrase-final lengthening, 517 Piedmontese, 293

Pierrehumbert, J., 161, 184, 516, 531–2, 537 n3, 595–6

Pietrzykowski, T., 729

pitch accents, 516, 517, 518–19, 519f, 520f, 521f, 528–9

plan inference (BDI) model of speech act interpretation, 580, 581–7, 603–4

Plato, 706

poetic effect, 621 Pohnpei, 120

pointing, 91–2, 96 n1, 98, 102–3, 111, 226, 569–70

polarity, 701–23

negation, 415, 701–2, 705–9, 722 sensitivity, 709–22

types, 702–5

see also polarity items

polarity items, 709–10, 711 lexicon, 715–18 minimizers, 715–16

negative (NPIs), 710, 711–12, 713–14, 715–16, 719–22

positive (PPIs), 710, 716 pragmatic force, 716 scalar operators, 717 sensitivity, 709, 711 syntactic constraints, 722

politeness, 71, 574–6, 580, 717 Pollack, M., 260, 261

Pollard, C., 423, 424, 734 polysemy, 345, 350–1, 357, 359 n2,

362 n15, 498, 543 Pople, H., Jr., 729 portioning, 351, 352 posets, 159–60

positive cognitive effect, 608 possible, 670

Postal, P., 66, 139, 265 n15, 426 n15 postposing, 154, 155, 163–8, 173 Pott, A. F., 716

PPIs see polarity items: positive pragmaphilology, 538, 539 pragmatic entailments, 704

pragmatic information, 407–8, 409f, 476 pragmatic interpretation, 451–3 pragmatic intrusion, 17–21, 22–3, 40–1,

48, 51

pragmatic licensing, 505, 507 pragmatic markers, 221, 223 pragmatic meaning, 457–8

pragmatic presupposition, xii, 33, 477 pragmatic scales, 673–4, 703, 704 pragmatic sets, 130

pragmatics,

definitions, xi, xii, 197, 222 goals, xi

types, 428 pre-announcements, 596 predicate transfer in systematic

polysemy, 350–1, 357, 362 n15 Preferred Argument Structure, 430–2 preposing, 154, 155, 158–62, 173, 417–18,

426 n9

focus preposing, 160–1, 173–4 nn4–5 topicalization, 160, 161–2, 174 n5, 183,

185, 195 n19

presupposed content, 209 presupposition, 29–52

accommodation, 36, 41, 45–6, 47, 50, 51, 134–5, 730

assertion, 31–3, 37, 46–7, 50, 51–2 n3 cognitive approach, 662–6

common ground, 41, 42, 43, 44–8 context/content distinction, 46, 48–50,

51

conversational implicata, 41–4 definiteness and indefiniteness, 126–7,

142–4, 149 nn13–14 entailment, 31–3, 34, 41, 43, 52 n4 factive presuppositions, 34–6 Frege on, 29–33, 51–2 n3

Grice on, xi, 33, 34, 36–9, 42–5, 47, 48 negation, 31–3, 34–5, 36–8, 51–2 n3 non-controversiality, 41–2, 45, 46–7, 50,

51 non-detachability, 40–1

non-specificity, 37, 48, 50–1 opacity and, 661–6

pragmatic intrusion, 40–1, 48, 51 pragmatic presupposition, xii, 33, 477 referential presupposition, 29, 33, 38–9 semantical presupposition, xii, 29–30,

477

presupposition float, 665–6 Price, P., 516

Prince, E., 122, 132, 137, 148 n7, 154, 155–6, 162, 163, 177, 180–1, 186, 187, 386, 387, 389–90, 396–7, 403 n8, 416, 434

Principle of Effective Means, 24

Principle of Relevance, 17–18, 28 n13, 472 procedural markers, 553

procedural meaning, 223 processing effort, 609 proferred content, 209 projection properties, 106–7 projective pairs, 370 prolongations, 378

pronominal reference, 257–60, 383, 384, 397–401

pronouns, 112, 326–8, 528–9, 723 n5, 735 propositional acts, 59

propositional forms, 455 propositions, xiii, 156–8, 676 prosodic cues, 595–6

pseudo-cleft, 417

Pustejovsky, J., 350, 353, 354–5, 356, 357 Putnam, H., 48, 85, 86, 95, 690–1 Pylyshyn, Z., 491, 492

Q principle, 13–17, 25, 27 n10, 27 n12, 297–9, 300, 302–10, 503–6, 541–8

quantificational phrases and descriptions, 481–3, 486 n24

quantity generalization, 430–2 QUDs see questions: questions under

discussion questions,

check questions, 580, 593, 594, 595, 598 and common ground, 209, 219 n14

as imperative, 209 intonation, 73

negative questions, 693 polarity questions, 72–3

questions under discussion (QUDs), 208–16, 219 n17

superquestions and subquestions, 210 tagged questions, 694–5 wh-questions, 599

yes–no questions, 595, 598, 603 Quileute, 109

Quine, W. V., 102, 105, 130, 495–6 Quintilian, 14

Quirk, R., 149 n16

R principle, 16–17, 25, 541–5 Radden, G., 550

raised subject construction, 413–14 rationality, 24–5

Ravin, Y., 345 Ray, T., 294

Recanati, F., 28 n16, 287 n18, 473, 485 n7, 486 n15, 638, 640, 653, 654 n5,

656 n10 Redeker, G., 233 Reed, I., 117 Reeder, K., 570

reference, xii–xiii, 74–96 aboutness, 74–5 circumscriptive reference, 399 content, 94–6

descriptions, 92, 127–8, 486 n25 indexicality, 90, 99

intentions, 92–3

Kaplan’s analysis, 90–1

meaning imparted via usage, 93–4 naïve theory of reference, 76 phenomenon of, 74–6

pointing, 91–2, 96 n1, 98, 102–3, 111, 226, 569–70

as pragmatic, 84–7

pronominal reference, 257–60, 383, 384, 397–401

referential properties of topic, 179–81 semantic theory, 76–84, 88–9 terminology, 87–8, 94

see also deferred interpretation; definiteness and indefiniteness; deixis; event reference

referential givenness–newness, 176–9 referential presupposition, 29, 33, 38–9 referential semantics, 456–7 reflexivity, 289–90, 291–3, 309, 312,

314 nn3–4, 326–8, 342–3 n9, 547 reformulations, 594, 598

Reggia, J., 729 Reichenbach, H., 99, 462 n1 Reimer, M., 91

Reinhart, T., 176, 180, 191, 192, 195 n22, 289–90, 291, 292–3, 301, 312,

314 nn3–4, 333 Reiter, R., 727 Reithinger, N., 598 rejections, 599, 601

relational givenness–newness, 177–9 relevance, 216, 219 n20

relevance theory, 607–32, 633–56 abduction and, 739–40 cognition, 608–10, 625–8

Cognitive Principle of Relevance, 610, 625–6

coherence, 237, 238, 239 communication, 230, 472, 485 n12,

610–14

Communicative Principle of Relevance, 612, 613, 626

comprehension, 226, 614–23 definition, 607–8

discourse markers, 229–31, 237, 238, 239

explicature, 636–43 explicit/implicit distinction, 633–56 implicature, 643–8

relevance theory (cont’d ) mental architecture, 623–5

Principle of Relevance, 17–18, 28 n13, 472

Rembarrnga, 113 repetition, 379 replacement, 378

representational dimension, 65 representational meaning, 223 requests, 570–1, 580, 581–3, 584–5, 596,

599, 601, 603

resource situation, 104, 130 respective, 683–4, 685–6, 687 respectively, 683–5, 687, 696 Reuland, E., 289–90, 291, 292–3, 312,

314 nn3–4 reversal, 702, 703–5 Reyle, U., 96, 205

rheme see topic and focus: terminology Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST), 245 Rieber, S., 223–4, 225–6 right-dislocation, 168–9, 187, 188–9,

195 n23, 196 n25, 417

Roberts, C., 130, 136, 208, 213, 219 n15, 219 n21

Rooth, M., 181, 253

Van Rooy, R., 508, 513, 513 n10 Ross, J., 66–7, 185, 186, 254, 255 Rouchota, V., 231, 238–9 Roulet, E., 554

RST (Rhetorical Structure Theory), 245 rule of strength, 15

Russell, B., 81, 82–4, 85, 98, 125, 126, 128–9, 148 n4, 442, 482, 486 n25

Russian, 148 n2, 307, 309, 353 Ryle, G., 18

Sacapultec Maya, 430 Sachs, J., 573

Sacks, H., 376

Sadock, J., 25–6 n2, 47, 56, 65, 67, 68, 69, 70, 72, 353, 594, 595

Sag, I., 145, 146, 147, 286 n12, 286 n13, 385–6, 389, 391, 393, 394, 402 n4, 423, 424, 535, 734

Sainsbury, R., 130

Sakakibara, S., 416 salience, 387–8, 403 n8 Salmon, N., 85, 93–4, 482

Samuel, K., 603

Sanders, T., 234, 235, 236, 237, 244, 247 SAS (speech act schema), 63

Saul, J., 22

saying, 366–9, 472–5

conventional implicature, 474–5 syntactic correlation constraint, 473 what is said and what isn’t, 472–4

scalar entailments, 704

scalar implicature, 6, 8–13, 645–6, 655–6 n9

scalar inferences, 704, 718–22 scalar models, 704, 705, 723 n1

grammatical constructions, 676, 678–83, 698 n11, 704, 723 n1

polarity sensitivity, 717–18 scales, pragmatic, 673–4, 703, 704 Scandinavian languages, 188, 307 Schachter, P., 393

Schegloff, E., 376, 596 Schiffer, S., 33

Schiffrin, D., 233, 235–6, 555 Schladt, M., 306 Schmerling, S., 184, 287 n14

Schourup, L., 221, 232, 240 n2 Schwenter, S., 239

Searle, J., 14, 56, 59–62, 63, 65, 68, 70, 73, 465, 470, 479, 484 n2, 484 n4, 535, 580, 581, 582, 696

Segal, G., 637, 649 Sellars, W., 130

semantic ellipsis, 274, 275, 277–9, 287 n15 semantical determinants, 30

semantical interpretation, 450–1, 453 semantical presupposition, xii, 29–30, 477 semantic–pragmatic distinction, 442–3,

447, 475–6

Carnapian approach, 443–6, 462 nn3–4 comprehension, 634–5

consequences of, 477–8, 486 n22 context, 476–7, 486 n20 information, 476 prototypicality effects, 461 terminology, 476, 486 n19

semantics, 442–62

Context Change Semantics, 205, 206, 478

correspondence theory of meaning, 74–5

definitions, 197, 222 descriptive semantics, 444–5 File Change Semantics, 133–4 formal semantics, 222, 442–3 foundational semantics, 445 linguistic semantics, 455–6, 457

literal meaning vs. speaker’s meaning, 450–3

meaning and speech acts, 446–50, 449f, 462 n5

metasemantics, 444 referential semantics, 456–7 Situation Semantics, 104

underdetermination, 453–7, 654 n3 varieties of meaning, 457–61

see also lexical meaning; meaning; semantic–pragmatic distinction

sense, 79–80, 87, 94 sensitivity, 709–22 diversity, 711 lexicon, 715–18 licensing, 711–15

scalar model, 717–18

sentence focus (SF) constructions, 432–3 sentences,

declarative, 417

donkey sentences, 132–4, 148 n8, 203–5 existential, 138–44

identity sentences, 78–9, 80–1 setting, 488–9

types, 65, 71–3 setting, 488–9 Sgall, P., 178 Shastri, L., 741 Shimony, S., 740 Shoham, Y., 506

Shopen, T., 271, 286 n13

Shriberg, E., 536, 595, 597, 599, 600f Sidner, C., 216, 257, 258, 261, 532 Siemund, P., 307, 308

signals, 366–7, 368 collateral, 373–81, 382 n5 primary, 373

Silverman, K., 531 Situation Semantics, 104 situational context, 384 slifting, 413

sluicing, 415–16 Smith, B., 24, 27 n8

so, 223, 224, 236, 238, 239, 383, 384, 394–7, 403 n11

Soames, S., 697 n2 social deixis, 119–21 some, 9–10, 414–15 Sorensen, J., 672, 673

sortal crossings, 357–9, 363–4 n24 source clauses, 383

South Dravidian, 707, 723 n3 Southeast Asian languages, 112, 119–20

Spanish, 109, 148 n2, 307, 441 n8, 699 n25 spatial deixis, 116–18

specificity, 144–7, 149 n17

Speech Act Empathy Hierarchy, 316, 318 speech act fallacy, 478–9

speech act schema (SAS), 63 speech acts, xii, 53–73

and assertion fallacies, 479 Austin’s view, 54–8, 59, 62, 64, 66 central vs. non-central, 224 communication and, 464–75,

485 nn6–8

constitutive rules, 60–1, 465 doctrine of infelicities, 56–7 formal approaches, 73 generation, 581

and grammar, 66–8 Grice’s influence, 58–62

ground floor vs. higher level, 224–5 illocutionary act potential, 62–6, 71 illocutionary acts, 54–6, 57, 58, 59, 60–2, 64–6, 368, 464, 465, 466–9

indirect speech acts, 68–73, 580 intonation, 532–6

language acquisition, 569–71 locutionary acts, 54, 55, 56, 59, 466 meaning and, 446–50, 449f, 462 n5 performatives, 54, 55, 56–8, 464, 465,

484 nn2–3

perlocutionary acts, 55–6, 368, 466 Searle’s view, 59–62, 63 Strawson’s view, 59, 63

see also cue-based model of speech act interpretation; non-sentences; plan inference (BDI) model of speech act interpretation; saying

Sperber, D., 6, 43, 219 n20, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 287 n18, 390, 454, 470, 472, 473, 485 n12, 626, 635, 646, 648

Spinoza, B., 706

square of opposition, 10–12

Stainton, R., 276, 287 n16, 641, 655 n6 Stallard, D., 358

Stalnaker, R., xii, xiii, 33, 34, 36, 44, 45–6, 47–50, 208, 444–5, 477, 478, 486 n20

Standard American English contours, 522t Standard Picture (SP), 452

standardized non-literality, 13

Stanley, J., 130–1, 271, 279, 486 n24, 640, 651, 654–5 nn5–6

statements, 144, 599 Steele, S., 536 Stevenson, R., 259–60 Stickel, M., 731 Stokhof, M., 205, 210

Stolcke, A., 592t, 597, 602

Strawson, P., 15, 18, 45, 59, 83, 84–5, 126, 127, 129, 189–90, 287 n18, 462 n2, 465, 469, 470, 706

structural description features, 421 subalterns, 11

subcontraries, 11

Subject Preference for Characterizing Sentences, 323

Suhm, B., 601

Surface Structure Empathy Hierarchy, 316, 317

Sweetser, E., 489, 667, 670, 671–3 Swerts, M., 531

Swinney, D., 587 symmetry, 132 synecdoche, 345, 561 n8

syntactic constructions, 421–5, 426 nn14–16

syntactic correlation constraint, 28 n15, 473

syntactic cues, 594–5

syntactic ellipsis, 273–4, 275–9, 286–7 nn11–14, 640–1 Syntactic Prominence Empathy

Hierarchy, 323

syntax, 185–9, 195 n22, 444, 448 non-canonical, 153–74

systematic polysemy, 350–1, 357, 362 n15, 498

systematicity, 491–2

Szabó, Z., 130–1, 136, 486 n24, 640, 654 n5

tagged questions, 694–5 Tamil, 113, 118, 120, 296 Tanenhaus, M., 14 Tanz, C., 99

target clauses, 383

Tarski, A., 455–6, 493, 513 n2 Taylor, K., 22, 640

Taylor, P., 536, 591t, 602 tense, 411–12, 422

Terken, J., 173–4 n4, 529, 530 text macrostructure, 245 textual units, 232

TG (Transformational Grammar), 66 the, 377, 382 n7

theme see topic and focus: terminology theory of mind, 623, 625

there, 164–5, 166, 417 thetic statements, 144 thinking face, 380 Thomason, R., 730, 740

Thompson, S., 212–13, 233, 245 thought, 99–100, 725–6

time deixis, 114–16 to, 377

ToBI system: intonation, 516–20 break indices, 516, 516f, 517f

pitch accents, 517, 518–19, 519f, 520f, 521f

Standard American English contours, 522t

token-reflexivity, 99 Tomlin, R., 180, 193 n8 tonal tier, 516

too, 4, 200–1, 218 n5 topic and focus, 175–96

conceptual issues, 176–83

given–new distinctions, 176–9, 529–30 information structure, 157–8, 175–6,

191, 428–9

meaning and truth-conditional effects, 189–91

phenomena, 183–91 pragmatic effects, 191–2

syntactic structure, 185–9, 195 n20, 195 n22

terminology, 175, 176, 180, 182, 193–4 n8

topic, 176, 179–81, 182, 191, 193–4 n8, 194 n17, 428

topic/focus identification, 192–3 topicalization, 160, 161–2, 174 n5, 183,

185, 195 n19, 417 topichood, 256, 264–5 n14 see also focus

Topic Empathy Hierarchy, 316, 318, 324

tough-movement, 417 Transformational Grammar (TG), 66 Traugott, E., 239

Travis, C., 669

truth, 57, 76–7, 80–1, 88, 89–90 truth conditions,

discourse markers, 222, 223 formal semantics, 222, 442–3 implicature, 4, 6, 25 n1 interpretation, 280

meaning, 189–91

pragmatics, 222, 453, 454, 456, 457 topic and focus, 189–91

try markers, 376–7 Turkish, 110, 307, 308, 703 turn-taking, 201–2, 574

Turner, M., 659, 667, 668, 669 two-sided understanding, 10 type, 267

type identifiability, 137 Tzeltal, 430, 436

Ullman, S., 539

unarticulated constituent, 460 underdetermination, 453–7, 654 n3 unexpectedness, 310–12

uniquely identifiable referents, 388 uniqueness, 125–32, 135–7, 148 n4 Urmson, J., 18, 59

utterance situation, 104

Vallduví, E., 183, 194 n10 Vanderveken, D., 73 Vayra, M., 531

Vendler, Z., 65

verb phrase ellipsis, 251–4,

263–4 nn8–12, 276, 383, 384, 391–4, 403 n10

verb phrase preposing, 417 Verbmobil corpus, 590, 591t verbs, perception, 489 verdictives, 64, 467

Verkuyl, H., 142, 143 vice versa, 686–7 Vilkuna, M., 183, 194 n10

vowels, non-reduced, 377

Waibel, A., 599, 601, 601f, 602 Walker, M., 12, 94

Ward, G., 27 n11, 96 n2, 122, 131, 136, 158, 165, 185, 194 n13, 360 n6, 384, 396, 417–18

Warnock, G., 59 Warrwa, 109

Washington, George, 8, 27 n7 Wason, P., 706

we, 675–6, 697 n1

Webber, B., 391, 398–400, 403 n13 Weber, E., 595

West Greenlandic, 117

see also Greenlandic Eskimo Westerståhl, D., 122, 130 wh-questions, 599

“what is said,” 224, 472–4, 648–53, 656 n11

wide context, 477 Wierzbicka, A., 65, 413 Wilcock, G., 424

Wilensky, R., 350, 730, 731, 738 Wilkins, D., 117, 118 Wilkinson, L., 575–6

Williams, E., 286 n11

Wilson, D., 6, 19, 43, 219 n20, 224, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 236, 237, 287 n18, 390, 454, 470, 472, 473, 485 n12, 635, 646, 648

Wilson, G., 145

Winograd, T., 257, 735, 736 Wittgenstein, L., 75, 102, 462 n2, 463 Wolff, C., 728–9

Woodbury, A., 531

Word Order Empathy Hierarchy, 323, 324

Woszczyna, M., 599, 601, 601f, 602

xyz constructions, 659–61, 659f, 661f

yeah, 587, 595 Yélî Dnye, 121 n3

discourse deixis, 119 person deixis, 112, 113