Intonation and prosody. The correlation between these notions
These terms are used interchangeably, as synonyms. Some linguists although strongly object
to such a confusion (Artemov, Zlatousova, Svetozarova).
Broadly speaking, intonation is a complex unity of closely related prosodic means, which
are capable of conveying different intonational (logical) and emotional attitudes.
By prosody the majority of linguists mean constant physical or acoustic characteristics
of speech (spectrum) and absence of speech signal. Spectrum – basic acoustic feature parameter of a separate sound.
Intonation is composed of the same elements of which prosody is. I. and P. have the same constituents,
but nevertheless, these are different phenomena.
Since the term P. may be applied to both “smaller” rhythmic groups and “larger” units, the nothion P
. is to some extent broader than the notion of I. But on the other hand P. is something that organizes our speech,
while I. is related to meaning. Thus, functionally the notion of I. is broader, because I. is related to meaning.
Is it justified to use them as synonyms? – No.
It seems reasonable to apply the term P. only to the constituiry (организующий) aspect of speech
and I. – to the logical and emotional aspects of speech. On the one hand P. and I. are similar
as they are composed of the same phonetic phenomena. But on the other hand they are different
– the difference lays in the sphere of their usage.
Intonation is “a term used in the study of suprasegmental gphonology referring to the distinctive
use of patterns of pitch, or melody”. We can see that in the British (and American) tradition I.
is associated with pitch variation, or melody, and that it has an important linguistic function
of conveying meaning. I. starts with a phrase, a sentence, while P. has a wider domain: from a syllable to the whole text.
The most common definition in Russian phonetics is as follows: I. “is a complex unity of 4 components
, formed by communicatively relevant varions in:
(1) voice pitch, or speech melody;
(2) the prominence of words, or their accent;
(3) the tempo (rate), rhythm and pausation of the utterance;
(4) voice-tamber.
!!NB!! I. operates at the linguistic level, starting from the sentence level, whereas
P. deals with certain physical and perceptual features starting from a syllable to the whole text.
What they have in common is pitch variation ranking highest among all the components.
Factor which determine the variety of phonetic styles.
Phonostylistics deals with phonetic styles, which are- different ways of pronunciation determined
by extralinguist.factors and characterized by specific phonetic features.So Pstylistics focuses
on the phonetic means restricted to a particular situation or type of context.
Any spoken utterance is conditioned not only by linguistic (internal) factors but also
by extraling. – aim of communication, speaker’s social status, sex and age, setting,etc.
Among the factors resulting in phonostylistic varieties we can also mention the form
of communication(monologue/dialogue), speaker’s attitude towards the subject, the emotional state, the extent of spontaneity of utterance.
Phonetic style-forming means: variations of pitch, range, loudness, tempo, rhythm and some others
.→distinguish b/the phonetic styles:
Reading aloud
Prepared speaking
Spontaneous speaking
Sometimes scholars prefer the division of p[honetic styles into: informal, academic(scientific),
publicistic and conversational.
Acc to the degree of carefulness of pronunciation 3 types of p-n:
-full style(associated with highly formal situations, address a large audience): distinct articulation
of vowels and consonants, minor degrees of assimilation, reduction, increased loudness,
a widened range , predominance of descending stepping scales, relatively slow tempo.
-neutral style( lecturing to a medium or small-sized audience, news reporting, interviewing):
Fairly high degrees of assimilation,reduction,elision,the lengh of sense groups is largerly
determined by the lex. And gram structure of the sentence(2-4 stressed words), normal degree
of loudness and range, descending ,ascend sliding and scandent scales in combination
-non-full(conversational)style(everyday informal speech or small talk): extreme forms of assimilation ,
reduction elision, changeable loudness, a narrowed range, variability in melodic contours( scales and tones)-
predominance of mixed, level and incomplete scales+incomplete falling tones and level tones, short sense-groups,
variable tempo, predominance of hesitation and suspense pauses over logical ones.
There is no uniform class-n of phonet. styles due to the large number of extralinguistic style-forming means that might form the basis of class-n.
_____
The phonetic styles can be determined and effected by the following factors: euphony, prosody, rhythm,
aesthetic function of sounds.
IN the Russian tradition phoneticians deal with styles of pronunciation, the basic principle for classifying
is the degree of carefulness, the quality of enunciation and the rate of speech. The categories were: full style
and colloquial style (Shcherba), full or elevated, neutral, colloquial (Avanesov, Bulanin).
Some phoneticians focus their attention on the social context of communication act, such as the formality of situation.
David Crystal and Derek Davy include the social status of the speaker as another social constraint which determines the style of speech.
The first steps in phonetic style research were concerned with the prose read aloud with the degree of spontaneity as the basic principal for the style determination.
Билет 19
The meaning of tones and scales.
The falling tone is most common in statements, special questions, commands and exclamations.
The rising tone is common in non-final parts of statements, in general questions, requests and warnings.
Tones:
1)Level tones(unchanging pitch)
2)Moving tones(changing pitch)
2 main forms of pitch change:fall,rise.
→Simple tones: falling, rising, level; Complex tones: fall-rise, rise-fall, rise-fall-rise.
Acc to their range and the end point tones can be:
Complete(categoric)
Incomplete(not final,non categoric in character)
We should look at the end point:the degree of completeness, the beginning of the tone.
LF- the voice strarts at a medium pitch level or a little below it and falls to a low pitch level.
It is categoric in character, final.Used in statements.suggests no contradictions(cool ,phlegmatic attitude).
High-Wide fall- indicates loveliness, politeand friendly interest involvement and mild surprise.
High-narrow fall- the voice strats high and stops at a medium pitch or a little above it.less categoric.
LR-the voice starts low and rises to a medium pitch or a little below. Expresses non-finality, it is non categoric
and implicatory in character. The Rise both in E. and Russian variants is rather steep and is followed by a fall which
is very slight in the nuclear variant. Used in general, alternative , tag-questions; in requests to reassure aperson to whom the question
is addressed.+ in high emotional requests when the speaker is pleading, in greetings if we want to sound warm , pleasant.
High-narrow(in all sorts of echoes and in questions calling for a repetition+ to keep the conversation go)/high wide
(expresses surprise or a shocked reaction).
RF- the voice first rises from a fairly low to high pitch level and then falls to a vary low pitch level.Final and categoric.
Expresses attitudes both pleasant and unpleasant, ranging from irony to sarcasm.
FR –the voice first fallsfrom a high or medium pitch level to the low pitch level and then slowly rises to a little below mid
pitch level.Contrastive , implicatory tone. Expresses politeness, apology, concern and uncertainty.
RFR- the voice starts from a fairly low pitch ,reaches a high level and then falls to a law pitch and then rises
a little below the medium pitch.suggests optimism and enthusiasm.
Level tones:high, mid, low.They are non –final nad non-categoric in character,may express hesitation
and uncertainty.used often in reciting poems.
Scales: acc to their general pitch direction- descending,ascending,level. Acc to the direction
of pitch movement within and b/ syllables the descending and ascending may be: stepping, sliding,scandent.
Acc to the pitch level of the whole scale- low,mid,high.
(e.g. Peter comes home at six o’clock)
DStepS:a series of stressed and unstressed syllables in which pitch descends in ‘steps’.the foll.stressed
is lower than preceeding, the unstressed is on the same level as stressed.
DSliding scale: descend. Stressed syl-s are pronounced with downward slides.
Each slide begins a little higher than the end of the preceding syl-l . It gives additional prominence to all the stressed words in the utterance.
DScandent Scale: -//- with pitch rises within stressed syl-s while each of the unstressed ones is pitched a little higher than the preceding one. Used for emphasis expressing, liveliness and sometimes impatience.
Asc.Step.Scale: ascend. Series of syl-s, each stressed is pitched a little higher than the preceding one.the unstressed ones between rise gradually.Used to show surprise, interest ,protest.
A.Sliding scale: -//-pronounced with slide
A.Scandent Scale: -//- with each stressed syl-l pronounced with a rise.
The last 2 types are more emphatic than A.Step.scale.
A level scale: stressed and unstressed syl-s are on the same pitch level.The head is the highest pitch point.High level S.- highly emotional speech;mid level-less emotional; low level-to express a perfunctory note in the utterance+ to show indifference ,hostility,unpleasant emotions.
National differences in facial expression, gestures and space (proxemics) between the Russians, the English and Americans. Correlation between non-verbal behavior and intonation.
The non-verbal means:
In oral communication non-verbal means are very important.
When we communicate we choose appropriate language means to convey the message but at the same time our verbal message is accompanied by a non-verbal display. It’s believed that 25% of communication is conveyed by non-verbal means.
- facial expressions
- gestures
- postures
Our faces can demonstrate a wide range of expressions, especially when our speech is emotionally colored:
the widening of the eyes. | interest and
the parting of the lips | excitement
Gestures involve the movements of the eyes, foot, arms, head.
By postures we mean special SOMETHING of the body.
These signals are called kinesic means. There is a special discipline – kinesics, which studies body language.
Functions of non-verbal communication:
• To provide information, either consciously or unconsciously
• To regulate the flow of conversation
• To express emotion
• To qualify, complement, contradict, or expand verbal messages
• To control or influence others
• To facilitate specific tasks, such as teaching a person to swing a golf club.
Some researchers put the level of nonverbal communication as high as 80 percent of all communication. More reasonably it could be at around 50-65 percent.
There are several types of Non-verbal communication: Kinesics, Proxemics, Chronemics, Oculesics, Haptics.
Kinesics - movement of the body (head, arms, legs, etc.). For example, the gesture of slitting one's throat in America means “I've had enough” or “I'm in trouble” in Swaziland means “I love you”.
Proxemics - the use of interpersonal space. For example Greeks and South Americans find it comfortable to stand, sit or talk to people at a distance which seems to North Americans and some Europeans intolerably close.
The closeness of Greeks and South Americans is unusual to Europeans and North Americans and it causes them to have the feelings of hostility, discomfort and intimidation.
However if Americans back away to their distance of comfort they'll be perceived as cold, unfriendly and distrustful.
The ways of non-verbal communication differ from culture to culture. We should be aware of those differences in order not to be misunderstood and to properly understand other people.
Behavior and gestures are interpreted differently:
Gestures can be law and high is style, socially restricted and borrowed from other cultures.
- Russian gestures- in front of the body, upright (в вертикальной плоскости) |
- English gestures- parallel the body __ Russians use wider gestures then Englishmen.
- Showing the thumb held upwards in certain parts of the world means "everything's ok", while it is understood in some Islamic countries (as well as Sardinia and Greece) as a rude sexual sign. Additionally, the thumb is held up to signify "one" in France and certain other European countries, where the index finger is used to signify "one" in other cultures.
- "Everything ok" is shown in western European countries, especially between pilots and divers, with the sign of the thumb and forefinger forming an "O". This sign, especially when fingers are curled, means in Japan "now we may talk about money", in southern France the contrary ("nothing, without any value"), in Eastern Europe and Russia it is an indecent sexual sign.
- In the Americas as well as in Arabic countries the pauses between words are usually not
too long, while in Japan pauses can give a contradictory sense to the spoken words.
Enduring silence is perceived as comfortable in Japan, while in India, Europe and North America it may cause
insecurity and embarrassment. Scandinavians, by Western standards, are more tolerant of silent breaks during conversations
- Laughing is connoted in most countries with happiness – in Japan it is often a sign of confusion, insecurity and embarrassment
- In Africa, avoiding eye contact or looking at the ground when talking to one's parents, an elder, or someone
of higher social status is a sign of respect. In contrast, these same actions are signals of deception or shame (on the part of the doer) in North America and most of Europe.
System of different spaces (by Edmond Hall):
Intimate space (for embracing, touching or whispering)- Close phase - 15 cm; Far phase - 15 - 45 cm
Formal space- 1.5 m
Social space (for interactions among acquaintances) – 3.5
Public distance (used for public speaking) -Close phase - 3.6 - 7.5 m Far phase - 7.5 m or more
Different cultures are used to maintaining a different amount of personal space when conversing,
and it is even noticeable that Northern Europeans leave each other more space than Southern Europeans.
In this example a Northern European who understood the difference would not feel threatened by someone
who got closer than usual, interpreting it correctly as normal to the person doing it rather than a deliberate act of aggression.
Correlation between non-verbal behaviour and intonation:
More commonly kinesic means intensify information conveyed by intonation.
A smile generally intensify positive feelings.
In public speaking it’s very important.
it’s recommended to control your body language and to use it appropriately.
there are certain gestures that are typical of certain cultures:
Билет 20
Functions of syllable. The notions of open and close juncture. Phonetic means of open juncture
There are two very important functions of syllable
. 1) constitutive.- its ability to be a part of a word or a word itself.
The syllable forms language units of greater magnitude: words, morphemes and utterances.
The S is the unit within which the relations between the distinctive features of the phonemes and their acoustic correlates and revealed.
Within a S prosodic characteristics of speech are realized, which form the stress-pattern of a word and
the rhythmic and intonation structures of an utterance. (S is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and supresegmental features).
2) distinctive – the S is characterized by its ability to differentiate words and word-forms. ([nai-treit] nitrate - [nait-reit] night-rate).
The distinction here lies in: a) the degree of aspiration of [t] sounds which is greater in the first member of the opposition than in the second;
b) allophonic difference of [r]: in the 1st member of the opposition it is slightly devoiced under the influence of the initial [t];
c) the length of the diphthong [ai]: in the second member of the opposition it is shorter because the syllable is closed by a voiceless plosive [t].
The S division changes the allophonic contents of the word because, the realization of the phoneme
in different positions in a S (initial, medial, final) results in different allophones. (mice kill-my skill, an ice house-a nice house;
I saw her eyes-I saw her rise; I saw the meat-I saw them eat.).
In language with distinctive differences in syllable division these differences are regarded as forming
a separate phonological unit, - one of its names, which has been suggested by the American descriptivists
and is widely used, is juncture phoneme. It refers mainly to distinctive differences in the position
of the syllabic boundary at the junction of words or morphemes as in [ə neim - ən eim].
There are two types of juncture usually distinguished: 1) open juncture 2) close juncture.
Open juncture is implemented by the onset of a fresh articulatory effort. In a name this open juncture occurs between [ə] and [n].
Close juncture occurs between sounds closely connected with each other within one S by a single
arc of articulatory effort, e.g. between [n] and [ei]. Close juncture is not marked. In fact it is just the absence of open juncture.
The phonetic nature of open juncture is complex. As the above examples show, its occurance involves
changes in length, pitch, aspiration and in other features of sounds.