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Ministry of Education and Science, Youth and Sports of Ukraine

State Institution

“Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University”

Tetiana V. Stepykina,

Iryna V. Mygovych

THEORY OF COMMUNICATION:

Interdisciplinary Approach

Manual for Master Students

Luhansk

State Institution

“Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University”

2012

УДК 811.111’1’27(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ – 923

С57

Reviewers:

Zelenko А. S. – Doctor of Philology, Professor of the Department of Ukrainian Philology and General Linguistics of Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University.

Moiseenko О. Y. – Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of Theory and Practice of Translation of Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University.

Khomyak N. V. – Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor of the Department of Theory and Practice of Translation of Germanic and Romanic Languages of Volodymyr Dahl East-Ukrainian National University.

Stepykina Т. V.

С57 Theory of Communication: Interdisciplinary Approach : Manual for Master Students / T. V. Stepykina, I. V. Mygovych ; State Institution “Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University”. – Luhansk : Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University Press, 2012. – 448 с.

The manual is written in need to provide guidance in the theory of language and crosscultural communication. It attempts to overview Communicative as well as Contact Linguistics in a synchronic perspective. The main purpose of the manual is to investigate the nature of language and culture as the basic means of interpersonal and intercultural communication. It is also aimed at studying the interdependence of a human being and language as a complex mental and sociocultural construct, the various ways in which language is used among the representatives of different sociocultural communities.

The structure and content of the manual correspond to the “Language and CrossCultural Communication” course syllabus designed for master students. The manual can also be used by English language teachers, researchers, post-graduate and advanced students of English, as well as by anyone researching language from communicative and intercultural perspective.

УДК 811.111’1’27(075.8) ББК 81.2Англ – 923

Recommended for print

by Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University Teaching and Training Council

(Official Record No. 6, January 11, 2012)

C O N T E N T S
PREFACE .......................................................................................	11
PART I
FUNDAMENTALS OF LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION
1. The Essence of Language Communication ..........................	14
Overview .........................................................................................	14
1.1 Communication Theory ..............................................................	14
1.2 Methods & Main Lines of Research
in Communicative Studies ..........................................................	16
1.3 Defining Communication ............................................................	18
1.4 Typology of Communication.......................................................	19
1.5 Models of Communication .........................................................	21
1.6 Ethnography of Communication .................................................	28
Summary ..........................................................................................	30
Practice ............................................................................................	31
References .......................................................................................	33
2. Language as The Medium of Human Communication .......	35
Overview .........................................................................................	35
2.1 Language from the Standpoint of Culture and Cognition ...........	35
2.2 Spoken versus Written Language ..............................................	41
2.3 Lexical Density ..........................................................................	45
2.4 Indicating Status .........................................................................	46
2.5 Footing .......................................................................................	47
2.6 Protecting Face ..........................................................................	48
2.7 Conversational Style...................................................................	49
2.8 Narrative Style ...........................................................................	51
Summary ..........................................................................................	52
Practice ............................................................................................	53
References .......................................................................................	59

3. Conversational Communication and Types
of Communicative Messages: Verbal, Non-Verbal	.................. 60
Overview .........................................................................................	60
3.1 The Process of Conversation .....................................................	61
3.2 Managing Conversation .............................................................	67
3.3 Maintaining Conversation ...........................................................	67
3.4 The Nature of Verbal / Non-Verbal Messages ..........................	69
3.5 The Relative Importance of Verbal
and Non-Verbal Communication ................................................	72
Summary ..........................................................................................	74
Practice ............................................................................................	74
References .......................................................................................	76
4. Pragmatic Aspect of Language Communication ..................	78
Overview .........................................................................................	78
4.1 Defining Pragmatics...................................................................	79
4.2 Cooperation and Implicature ......................................................	80
4.3 Hedges .......................................................................................	82
4.4 Speech Acts and Events ............................................................	83
4.5 Conditions for the Performance of Speech Acts .......................	85
4.6 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts ................................................	87
Summary ..........................................................................................	89
Practice ............................................................................................	89
References .......................................................................................	96
5. Language Contact as an Outcome
of Language Communication.......................................................	98
Overview .........................................................................................	98
5.1 The Subject Matter of Contact Linguistics ................................	98
5.2 History of Research on Language Contact .............................	103
5.3 The Field of Contact Linguistics ..............................................	107
5.4 Types of Contact Situation .......................................................	108
5.5 Language Creation: New Contact Languages ..........................	115

5.6 The Social Contexts of Language Contact ...............................	119
5.7 Speech Communities and Language Contact ..........................	121
Summary ........................................................................................	124
Practice ..........................................................................................	124
References .....................................................................................	125
6. Language Contact and Linguistic Variation:
Style, Social Class, Sex, Gender, Ethnicity .............................	127
Overview .......................................................................................	127
6.1 Language and Social Class ......................................................	127
6.2 Style .........................................................................................	134
6.3 Style as the Second Main Dimension of Linguistic Variation ...	136
6.4 Function versus Structure ........................................................	138
6.5 Overview of Approaches to Style ............................................	139
6.6 Language and Gender / Sex.....................................................	144
6.7 Simple Sex-Linked Patterns in Linguistic Variation..................	149
6.8 Language and Ethnicity ............................................................	152
Summary ........................................................................................	158
Practice ..........................................................................................	159
References .....................................................................................	171
7. Language Contact and Linguistic Convergence ...............	173
Overview .......................................................................................	173
7.1 Sprachbund: Contact Across Contiguous Speech
Communities ............................................................................	173
7.2 Substratum, Superstratum, Adstratum......................................	175
7.3 Balkanisms as an Example of Language Convergence
(Balkan Sprachbund) ...............................................................	176
7.4 Language Contact and Phonological Change ..........................	180
7.5 Suprasegmental System of Language
(on the base of Estonian) .........................................................	183
Summary ........................................................................................	185
Practice ..........................................................................................	187
References .....................................................................................	187

8. The Results of Language Contact: Pidgins, Creoles .......	190
Overview .......................................................................................	190
8.1 Defining Pidgin .........................................................................	190
8.2 Social Contexts of Pidgin Formation ........................................	193
8.3 Structural Characteristics of Pidgins ........................................	196
8.4 Processes of Pidgin Formation.................................................	199
8.5 Common Traits among Pidgins.................................................	201
8.6 Creole Language ......................................................................	202
8.7 Creole Formation & Classification ...........................................	203
8.8 The Creole Prototype ...............................................................	209
Summary ........................................................................................	210
Practice ...........................................................................................	211
References .....................................................................................	214
PART II
FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
1. Intercultural Communication: The Basics .........................	216
Overview .......................................................................................	216
1.1 Why to Study Intercultural Communication? ...........................	216
1.1.1 The Technological Reason ..............................................	218
1.1.2 The Demographic Reason ..............................................	223
1.1.3 The Economic Reason ....................................................	224
1.1.4 The Self-Awareness Reason ..........................................	226
1.1.5 The Ethical Reason .........................................................	226
Summary ........................................................................................	228
Practice ..........................................................................................	228
References .....................................................................................	229
2. Culture, Communication, Context, and Power ..................	230
Overview .......................................................................................	230
2.1 What is Culture? ......................................................................	230
2.1.1 High Culture and Low Culture ........................................	232
2.1.2 Shared and Learned Patterns of Belief and Perception ....	234

2.1.3 Culture as a Contested Zone ..........................................	236
2.2 The Relationship between Culture and Communication ..........	237
2.2.1 How Culture Influences Communication ........................	238
2.2.2 Value Orientations and Cultural Conflict .........................	243
2.2.3 How Communication Influences Culture ........................	246
2.3 The Relationship between Communication and Context ..........	246
2.4 The Relationship between Communication and Power ............	247
Summary ........................................................................................	250
Practice ..........................................................................................	250
References .....................................................................................	251
3. Identity and Intercultural Communication .........................	253
Overview .......................................................................................	253
3.1 A Dialectical Approach to Understanding Identity ...................	253
3.1.1 A Social Psychological Perspective ................................	254
3.1.2 A Communication Perspective ........................................	256
3.1.3 A Critical Perspective .....................................................	258
3.2 Social and Cultural Identities ....................................................	259
3.2.1 Gender Identity ...............................................................	259
3.2.2 Age Identity ....................................................................	260
3.2.3 Racial and Ethnic Identities.............................................	261
3.2.4 Religious Identity.............................................................	263
3.2.5 Class Identity ..................................................................	264
3.2.6 National Identity..............................................................	266
3.2.7 Regional Identity .............................................................	266
3.2.8 Personal Identity .............................................................	267
3.3 Identity, Stereotypes, and Prejudice .........................................	268
3.4 Identity Development Issues ....................................................	272
3.4.1 Minority Identity Development .......................................	272
3.4.2 Majority Identity Development .......................................	274
3.4.3 Multiracial and Multicultural People ...............................	277
3.5 Identity and Language..............................................................	280
3.6 Identity and Communication.....................................................	280

Summary ........................................................................................	282
Practice ..........................................................................................	282
References .....................................................................................	283
4. Language and Intercultural Communication ......................	286
Overview .......................................................................................	286
4.1 Cultural Variations in Language ...............................................	287
4.1.1 Variations in Communication Style ..................................	287
4.1.2 Variations in Contextual Rules ........................................	290
4.1.3 Co-Cultural Communication ............................................	290
4.1.4 Translation and Interpretation .........................................	293
4.2 Language and Identity..............................................................	296
4.2.1 Code-Switching ...............................................................	297
4.3 Language Politics and Policies .................................................	298
4.4 Language and Globalization .....................................................	299
Summary ........................................................................................	302
Practice ..........................................................................................	302
References .....................................................................................	303
5. Non-Verbal Codes and Cultural Space ................................	305
Overview .......................................................................................	305
5.1 Defining Non-Verbal Communication: Thinking Dialectically ..	305
5.1.1 Comparing Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication .......	306
5.1.2 What Non-Verbal Behavior Communicates....................	308
5.2 The Universality of Non-Verbal Behavior ...............................	309
5.2.1 Recent Research Findings ..............................................	309
5.2.2 Non-Verbal Codes ...........................................................	311
5.2.3 Cultural Variation or Stereotype? ....................................	314
5.2.4 Semiotics and Non-Verbal Communication .....................	315
5.3 Defining Cultural Space ...........................................................	316
5.3.1 Cultural Identity and Cultural Space ...............................	317
5.3.2 Changing Cultural Space.................................................	317
5.3.3 Postmodern Cultural Spaces ...........................................	318

Summary ........................................................................................	319
Practice ..........................................................................................	319
References .....................................................................................	320
6. Understanding Intercultural Transitions ............................	322
Overview .......................................................................................	322
6.1 Types of Migrant Groups .........................................................	323
6.1.1 Voluntary Migrants..........................................................	323
6.1.2 Involuntary Migrants .......................................................	324
6.2 Culture Shock...........................................................................	325
6.3 Migrant-Host Relationships ......................................................	327
6.3.1Assimilation .....................................................................	327
6.3.2 Separation .......................................................................	328
6.3.3 Integration .......................................................................	329
6.3.4 Marginalization ................................................................	329
6.3.5 Combined Modes of Relating..........................................	329
6.4 Cultural Adaptation ..................................................................	331
6.4.1 Models of Cultural Adaptation ........................................	331
6.4.2 Individual Influences on Adaptation ................................	337
6.4.3 Outcomes of Adaptation .................................................	338
6.5 Identity and Adaptation ............................................................	339
6.5.1 Adapting on Re-Entry .....................................................	340
6.5.2 Living on the Border .......................................................	341
Summary ........................................................................................	343
Practice ..........................................................................................	343
References .....................................................................................	344
7. Culture, Communication, and Conflict ................................	346
Overview .......................................................................................	346
7.1 Characteristics of Intercultural Conflict ...................................	347
7.2 Two Orientations to Conflict ....................................................	349
7.2.1 Conflict as Opportunity ...................................................	349
7.2.2 Conflict as Destructive Force .........................................	350

7.2.3 Cultural Differences in Conflict Views ...........................	353
7.3 The Interpersonal Approach to Conflict ...................................	354
7.3.1 Types of Conflict.............................................................	354
7.3.2 Strategies and Tactics for Dealing with Conflict ............	356
7.3.3 Gender, Ethnicity, and Conflict ........................................	358
7.3.4 Value Differences and Conflict Styles ............................	360
7.4 Interpretive and Critical Approaches to Social Conflict ...........	361
7.4.1 Social Contexts ...............................................................	362
7.4.2 Economic Contexts .........................................................	363
7.4.3 Historical and Political Contexts .....................................	363
7.5 Managing Intercultural Conflict ...............................................	364
7.5.1 Productive versus Destructive Conflict ..........................	364
7.5.2 Competition versus Cooperation .....................................	365
7.5.3 Dealing with Conflict ......................................................	366
7.5.4 Mediation ........................................................................	372
Summary ........................................................................................	373
Practice ..........................................................................................	374
References .....................................................................................	375
8. The Outlook for Intercultural Communication ..................	377
Overview .......................................................................................	377
8.1 The Components of Competence ............................................	377
8.1.1 Individual Components ....................................................	378
8.1.2 Contextual Components ..................................................	387
8.2Applying Knowledge about Intercultural Communication ........	388
8.3 What the Future Holds .............................................................	393
Summary ........................................................................................	394
Practice ..........................................................................................	395
References .....................................................................................	395
Conclusion ...................................................................................	397
Supplementary Reading .............................................................	398
Glossary ........................................................................................	407

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