bakalavry_2_kurs

and the English governor all meaning, in one sense or another, "control", "management" and "supervision". More recently Norbert Wiener has used the word to name his book, which deals with the activity of a group of scientists engaged in the solution of a wartime problem and some of the mathematical concepts involved. Nowadays the word has become associated with the solution of problems dealing with activities for computers. Before studying computer systems it is necessary to distinguish between computers and calculators. These terms have two different meanings. The term calculator will refer to a machine which can perform arithmetic operations, which is mechanical, which has a key-board input, which has manually operated controls. The term computer will refer to automatic digital computers which can solve complete problems, are generally electronic, have various rapid input-output devices, have internally stored control programs. Speed and general usefulness make a computer

equivalent to thousands of calculators and their operators. The ability of electronic computers to solve mathematical and logical problems, has made the sphere of their application practically boundless.

It is difficult to say what the future holds in store for Cybernetics. Every day we learn more and more about the penetration of Cybernetics into the most widely differing spheres of human activity. The launching of sputniks and the delivery of our space rockets to their orbits with such high accuracy could have been hardly possible without computers. This, however, does not mean, that a machine can ever become "cleverer" than its creator. The point is that the machine does not replace man, it only increases his work output and multiplies his power over the forces of nature. It should be always remembered that the machine serves man, and not the other way round. Without man, even the most perfect machine would be only a useless heap of metal.

Man's technical progress is reflected in the tools he has invented. From early times he has been ceaselessly creating and improving devices to assist his brain in completing tasks difficult or otherwise impossible. Throughout the centuries man has developed and refined the ability to record, process, and communicate information. With the advent of automatic digital computers, man has created devices that can solve com¬ plete problems without the need for human intervention during the course of solution.

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Nowadays computers have become increasingly important as basic tools for analysis. This operation requires highly refined and flexible techniques.

The contributions of the scientists to the progress of Cybernetics consists of the evaluation, measurement and description of the capabilities and of structural and functional attributes of living organisms. Such studies involve the methods of communication, feedback and control in the living entity. Hence an important aspect of the work in Cybernetics for mathematicians deals with the mathematical theory of communication.

In terms of computer development Cybernetics is concerned with the design and construction of electrical or electronic analogs capable of performing processes carried out within a living entity, including the selection and evaluation, as well as the storage of information. In terms of understanding the operation of the human nervous system, Cybernetics contributes new insight into a wide range of processes such as learning, regulation and the emotional behaviour of individual human beings as well as societies. Specifically the problems of decision-making, thinking and synthesis, imagination and creative endeavour of people, come under the scrutiny of Cybernetics. It is anticipated that the future developments of automated industries and societal functions will be based on the theorems developed from Cybernetics which thus far has made significant contribution to the technology of guided missiles, business and scientific computer applications, communications and automatic control. Cybernetics is a young science and yet it is increasingly applied in various branches of industry and research. Invading a wide range of fields in human activity, Cybernetics endeavours to find the answer to two major questions: the best way of controlling this or that process, and the best way of utilizing a machine for controlling this process.

COMPREHENSION

1. Answer the text and answer the questions

1. What can (can's) computers do? 2. Are computers slaves or masters? 3. Who is really giving orders: man or machine? 4. Can we tell a computer how to learn, to create, to invent, etc.? 5. How can a machine be made to decide? 6. How can one determine whether or not a problem can be solved by a computer? 7. Why is the road from the conception of a program to its execution by the computer so long and tiresome? 8. Why is the software so costly and unsatisfactory? 9. What are we really trying to do in the process of communication? 10. What human abilities are irreplaceable by a computer? 11. Why is the number of possible computer designs limitless? Is there any limit to computer speed? 12. What enables modern computers to operate in millions of a second? 13. What is the rote of the programmer in the transition of meaningful information to the strings of meaningless bits (information in the computer sense) with which a computer operates? 14. What results can be achieved by performing a sharply defined sequence of sharply defined actions?

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2. Decide if the statements are true or false

1.Before studying computer systems it is necessary to bear in mind that

VOCABULARY

1. Find English equivalents to the following

решение проблемы военного времени, математические понятия, управляемый вручную, сохраняемый внутри, в запасе, умножает его потенциал/возможности, способность записывать, обрабатывать и передавать информацию, структурные и функциональные характеристики живых организмов, вносит новый взгляд в, все больше и больше применяется в.

2. Find Russian equivalents to the following

problems dealing with, has a key-board input, rapid input-output devices, high accuracy, automatic digital computers, requires highly refined and flexible techniques, theory of communication, the storage of information, decision-making, computer applications.

2. What is computer science?

Computers are a part of everyday life for the majority of people. They are used for work, recreation and daily activities such as banking, shopping and even driving. Most people have a rudimentary understanding of how computers operate and can use them to complete simple daily tasks. Others work closely with computers and have a higher level of understanding and competency and still others are in the business of designing, creating and improving computers. Computers have become so necessary to daily life

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that the area of computer science has been developed. If you have ever heard the term computer science and wondered what it is then this article will give you a brief overview of the area.

Computer science is a philosophy and a field of study that covers basically all aspects of information access, particularly as relates to computer code, technical engineering, and Internet communications. Some of the people who work in this area have jobs as programmers, using algorithms to study and solve complex problems and equations; others look for ways of

principles, applications, and technologies of computing and computers. It involves the study of data and data structures and the algorithms to process these structures; of principles of computer architecture-both hardware and software; of problem-solving and design methodologies; of computer-related topics such as numerical analysis, operations research, and artificial intelligence; and of language design, structure, and translation technique. Computer Science provides a foundation of knowledge for students with career objectives in a wide range of computing and computer-related professions

There are two main areas of computer science, theoretical computer science and applied computer science. Theoretical computer science involves areas of study such as; the theory of computation, information and coding theory, algorithms and data structure, database and information retrieval, and language theory. Applied computer science involves using computers to work on complex problems and ideas such as artificial intelligence, the architecture and engineering of computer systems, graphics and visualization, security and cryptography, computational science, information science and software engineering.

Computer science also has strong connections to other disciplines. Many problems in science, engineering, health care, business, and other areas can be solved effectively with computers, but finding a solution requires both computer science expertise and knowledge of the particular application domain. Thus, computer scientists often become proficient in other subjects. Finally, computer science has a wide range of specialties. These include computer architecture, software systems, graphics, artificial intelligence, computational science, and software engineering. Drawing from a common core of computer science knowledge, each specialty area focuses on particular challenges. Major areas of Computer Science include:

1. Operating Systems - concerned with the development and structure of complex programs which facilitate man-machine communications.

2. Computational Science - the analysis of numerical methods for solving mathematical problems with a computer.

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3. Programming Languages - the study of the design and properties of languages by which humans communicate with computers.

4.Architecture - the study and use of mathematical logic to design electronic

circuits.

5.Intelligent Systems - concerned with means by which computers may perform

tasks which might be characterized as 'intelligent' if performed by humans.

6.Automata Theory - an abstract study of computers and their capabilities.

7.Information Storage and Retrieval - the study of methods for storing a vast amount of data in a computer and methods for searching and retrieving this data.

8.Software Engineering - the study of tools and techniques for software design, development, testing and maintenance.

COMPREHENSION

1. Read the text and answer the questions

1.What are computers used for?

2.Why has computer science been developed?

3.What does theoretical computer science involve?

4.What is computer science?

5.What disciplines have connection to computer science?

6.What are major areas of computer science?

7.What professions connected with computer science do you know?

8.What area of computer science studies tools and techniques for software?

9.What is computer architecture?

10.What does applied computer science involve?

2 Decide if the statements are true or false

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VOCABULARY

1. Find English equivalents to the following

повседневная деятельность, выполнить простые повседневные задачи, компетенция, доступ к информации, включать, программист, алгоритм, искать, данные, сведения, безопасность, криптография, искусственный разум, технология перевода, математическая логика, электронный схемы, выполнять задачи, возможность, хранить большой объем информации, утилита.

2. Find Russian equivalents to the following

recreation, to have a rudimentary understanding, to work closely with, computer code, technical engineering, Internet communications, to leverage information technology, efficient, streamlined, application, computing, to process, computer architecture, hardware, software, of problem-solving and design methodologies, to facilitate, testing, maintenance, to retrieve data.

3. Fill in the gaps and translate the text

computer graphics, focus, application, computational complexity theory, science, people, computation, specific programming languages, subfield

Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the 1) ___of the theoretical foundations of information and 2) ___and their implementation and 3)___in computer systems. Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as 4) _ _ _ ) , while others relate to properties of computational problems (such as 5) _ _ _ ) . Still others 6)___on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to describing computations, while computer programming applies 7) ___ to solve specific computational problems. A further 8) ___ , human-computer interaction, focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable and universally accessible to 9) ___ .

4. Match the terms with their definitions

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TRANSLATE INTO ENGLISH

1. Существует множество определений кибернетики, исходящих из основного положения о том, что это наука об управлении в системах различной природы (технических, биологических, экономических, общественных и т. д.). 2. За рубежом есть тенденция заменить термин «кибернетика» другими, например, «информатика», «теория систем», «компьютер сайенс» и др. 3. В разнообразных определениях понятия «кибернетика» подчеркиваются такие ее стороны, как системность, надежность, использование моделей и ЭВМ и пр. 4. Кибернетика - это прежде всего научно-методологическое направление, рассматривающее весь объективно существующий мир с одной, а именно информационной, точки зрения. 5. Кибернетика намеренно отвлекается от материальной стороны мира и изучает только информационные процессы, т. е. получение, кодирование и обработку информации, в том числе ее передачу и использование. 6. Информация в кибернетике понимается широко - это сведения, знания, факты - все то, что используется для принятия решений по управлению. 7. Этим «кибернетическим мировоззрением» определяется значение кибернетических представлений, проникновение кибернетических подходов во все области современной науки и техники, во все формы человеческой деятельности. 8. Мышь позволяет вам перемещать курсор и двигаться по экрану очень быстро. Осуществление подобных действий при помощи клавиш-стрелок заняло бы гораздо больше времени. Мышь имеет одну или более кнопок для взаимодействия с компьютером. 9. Знаки и изображения, которые мы видим на экране, состоят из точек, которые называются элементами изображения (пикселями). Общее число пикселей, на которые поделен дисплей как горизонтально, так и вертикально, известно под названием разрешение экрана. 10. Портативные компьютеры используют плоские жидкокристаллические дисплеи вместо кинескопов. Жидкокристаллический дисплей использует сетку кристаллов и поляризующих фильтров, чтобы показать изображение. Кристаллы фиксируют свет в разных количествах, чтобы произвести точки изображения.

GIVE A SUMMARY OF THE TEXT

- state the main ideas of the text;

-identify the most important details that support the main ideas;

-write your summary in your own words, except for quotations;

-express the meaning of the text, not just its details.

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1. Complete the sentences with suitable relative pronouns who, which, that

2. Translate the sentences paying attention to conditional sentences

1. If Cantor had not derived Theorem I on the power of the continuum, he would not have deduced from it that the continuum is uncountable. 2. If Cantor had not developed his theory of infinite classes, Zeno's and Galileo's paradoxes would not have been resolved. 3. If Cantor had not derived Theorem I on the power of the continuum, he would not have deduced from it that the continuum is uncountable. 4. But for the paradoxes, Cantor's set theory could have served as a secure foundation for mathematics. 5. Most mathematicians continued to develop their theories as if the crisis in the foundations of mathematics had not concerned them. 6. Most mathematicians

discovered, were the mathematicians provoked to start a thorough reconstruction of the entire foundations of mathematics. 8. So severe were the attacks on his work that Cantor began to doubt himself, became depressed and suffered mental breakdowns. 9. Were I asked now many transfinite numbers exist, I would say that there exists an infinity of transfinite cardinal numbers.

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3. Translate the complex sentences into Russian paying attention to various types of clauses (predicate clauses, subject clauses, adverbial clauses, object clauses)

1.A serious difficulty will be in that such compounds have not yet being considered.

2.What matters here is that in principle the problem can be solved by straightedge and compass alone. 3. The question remains whether this approach is applicable in all cases. 4. That it is easy to confuse the two notions is indicated by this example. 5. How the plus and minus came into use is a matter of considerable conjecture. 6. When they advanced their hypothesis they had no adequate tool to make it practicable. 7. Although there is no generally accepted theory, there is much data. 8. You never know what you can do till you try. 9. Applications are endless, wherever high data storage capacity is required. 10. It was found that other derivatives did not result in higher yields. 11. We learned that the results reported by these scientists were erroneous. 12. Any algebraic equation has roots and it does not matter whether its coefficients are real or imaginary. 13. In any case, it is questionable whether with small samples extreme uniformity should be a basis for making data suspect.

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