Histories of Tourism: Representation, Identity and Conflict

Larsen, Jonas

John Walton (ed.), Histories of Tourism: Representation, Identity and Conflict, Multilingual Matters, New York (2005), 244 pp., $44.95.

Tourism studies long represented a marginalised 'island' in the social sciences, ridiculed for studying something as insignificant as sightseeing, as superficial as pleasure and leisure. However, as the sociologist John Urry's works indicate, among others, a 'mobility turn' is spreading into and transforming the social sciences, placing (im)mobilities not only of tourists, but also of objects, images, risks, technologies, business people, professionals, exchange students, migrants and guest workers at centre stage. At the same time, drawing on migration, diaspora, postcolonial, transport and social network studies, tourism researchers are starting to draw our attention to how tourist-type travel to visit significant others and attend 'obligatory' social, cultural and national/regional events is becoming 'essential' as many social networks become more mobile and widespread. Tourism mobilities have suddenly become a serious topic for research.

This 'turn to tourism' is now also apparent in historical studies. Histories of Tourism is an important and timely book aiming to connect historical studies and tourism studies. The central argument is that it is about time that historians and tourism researchers (mainly social scientists) 'discovered' each other. The volume basically consists of a collection of essays written by historians, edited by a social historian who is a founding president of the Commission for History and Tourism and the author of several books on seaside resorts, tourism and regional identities. It therefore tackles this aim of bringing the two disciplines together from a historical studies point of view rather than the other way round, though the ambition is to enrich both disciplines and to stimulate practitioners in both through this 'marriage'.

Walton's introductory chapter engagingly sets the scene for the book. Walton argues that historical studies, like the social sciences, have delegitimised tourism in favour of high politics, international diplomacy, the coal, steel or cotton industries, and studies of quantifiable aspects of living standards. He then directs his criticism at tourism studies' own lack of interest in history and their 'derivative and perfunctory' use of the past when they do deal with history. Walton has a point about the 'ahistorical' nature of tourism studies, but his argument comes across as rather facile and is not supported by very much documentation, and he ends by merely paying lip service to the many art historians and social scientists who have made detailed historical studies of tourism and travel cultures.

There then follow twelve case studies from around the world, ranging from antiquity to the early twentieth century, and successfully demonstrating why tourism matters to historical studies. For example, John M. MacKenzie forcefully shows how the British empire and other empires depended greatly on physical travel by people, objects and images; in short, they were empires of travel. And in an equally excellent article Kristin Semmens, an author discussed in this issue's Review article, demonstrates how tourism under Hitler was central to his Nazi campaign. 'Until recently,' she argues, 'the touristic turn in Third Reich historiography was hindered by a perceived dissonance between holidays and horror, vacations and violence, tourism and terror . . . However . . . these were never completely separate phenomena, but, instead, became intertwined after 1933' (p. 159).

For various reasons, however, despite the book's aims, Walton's introductory chapter and the case studies presented here are less successful in advancing tourism studies themselves. Few of the chapters actually engage in any detail with tourism theory or related empirical studies by tourism researchers, or explicitly discuss what the two disciplines can learn from each other. The missing dialogue with tourism research is especially striking in the many articles concerned with representations (especially guidebooks), since there is much existing literature in this field, which, moreover, is firmly grounded in historical evidence. A related point is the noticeable lack of methodological considerations, at least for a 'traditional' social scientist like this reviewer. With one or two exceptions, nothing is said about the archive work, the material analysed or the methods used, making it difficult for researchers in this field to learn to do better 'tourism histories'.

Second, the 'tourism histories' presented in Histories of Tourism actually do little more than resemble 'traditional' tourism research, as exemplified by the many readings of guidebooks and other professional travel writings. Tourism studies have for long been dominated by a representational paradigm in which tourism practices have been examined by means of professional texts rather than what embodied people 'do' and 'represent'. Much new tourism theory argues that this has produced rather crude and lifeless accounts of the tourist experience. Tourism histories would be more interesting and innovative if they focused less on 'high culture' literature and more on the oral histories, postcards, diaries and photographs produced by tourists themselves.

The focus upon representation also means that there are no 'histories' of the material cultures of tourism, in relation to, for example, transport or representational technologies. This despite the fact that recent tourism theory has increasingly been arguing that tourism performances involve, and indeed are made possible and pleasurable by, objects, machines and technologies. 'Nonhumans' are sadly missing in these excessively 'humanistic' accounts.

Despite these critical remarks by a social scientist, I hope that Histories of Tourism finds a wide audience, and that many historians and social scientists will embark on a journey into the past of a sort the volume advocates.

Jonas Larsen, Roskilde University

Copyright Manchester University Press Sep 2006

Provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights Reserved

Tourism is travel for predominantly recreational or leisure purposes or the provision of services to support this leisure travel. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited". Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In 2006, there were over 842 million international tourist arrivals.[3]

Tourism is vital for many countries, due to the large intake of money for businesses with their goods and services and the opportunity for employment in the service industries associated with tourism. These service industries include transportation services such as cruise ships and taxis, accommodation such as hotels and entertainment venues, and other hospitality industry services such as resorts.Contents [hide]

1 Definition

2 Prerequisites

3 Most visited countries

4 International tourism receipts

5 History

5.1 Pilgrimage

5.2 Health tourism

5.3 Creative tourism

5.4 Leisure travel

5.5 Winter tourism

5.6 Mass tourism

5.6.1 In Britain

5.6.2 International

5.7 Recent developments

6 Growth

7 Negative impacts

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

[edit]

Definition

Colosseum, Rome, Italy.

Christ the Redeemer, and panorama of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Hunziker and Krapf, in 1941, defined tourism as "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity."[4] In 1976 Tourism Society of England defined it as "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981 International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism[5] defined Tourism in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment.

All Giza Pyramids, Cairo, Egypt.

Sukiennice in Krakow's market place. Poland

Neuschwanstein Castle, Füssen, Germany.

The United Nations classified three forms of tourism in 1994 in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism, which involves residents of the given country traveling only within this country; Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.

The UN also derived different categories of tourism by combining the 3 basic forms of tourism: Internal tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism; National tourism, which comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism; and International tourism, which consists of inbound tourism and outbound tourism. Intrabound tourism is a term coined by the Korea Tourism Organization and widely accepted in Korea. Intrabound tourism differs from domestic tourism in that the former encompasses policymaking and implementation of national tourism policies.

Recently, the tourism industry has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of intrabound tourism because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists. Some national policymakers have shifted their priority to the promotion of intrabound tourism to contribute to the local economy. Examples of such campaigns include "See America" in the United States, "Get Going Canada" in Canada, "Uniquely Singapore" in Singapore, "100% Pure New Zealand" in New Zealand and "Incredible India" in India.

[edit]

Prerequisites

Before people are able to experience tourism they usually need discretionary income (i.e. money to spend on non-essentials); time off from work or other responsibilities; leisure time tourism infrastructure, such as transport and accommodation; and legal clearance to travel.

Individually, sufficient health is also a condition, and of course the inclination to travel. Furthermore, in some countries there are legal restrictions on travelling, especially abroad. Certain states with strong governmental control over the lives of citizens (notably established Communist states) may restrict foreign travel only to trustworthy citizens. The United States prohibits its citizens from traveling to some countries, for example Cuba. Visas are also sometimes required.

[edit]

Most visited countries

Main article: World Tourism rankings

The World Tourism Organization recognizes ten countries as the most visited in 2006 by number of travellers. Most are on the European continent.Rank Country Continent International tourist

arrivals (2006)

1 France Europe 79.1 million

2 Spain Europe 58.5 million

3 United States North America 51.1 million

4 China Asia 49.6 million

5 Italy Europe 41.1 million

6 United Kingdom Europe 30.1 million

7 Germany Europe 23.6 million

8 Mexico North America 21.4 million

9 Austria Europe 20.3 million

10 Russia Europe 20.2 million

[edit]

International tourism receipts

The World Tourism Organization recognizes the following 10 countries as the top ten tourism earners for the year 2006. It is noticeable that most of them are on the European continent.Rank Country Continent International Tourism

Receipts (2006)

1 United States North America $85.7 billion

2 Spain Europe $51.1 billion

3 France Europe $42.9 billion

4 Italy Europe $38.1 billion

5 China Asia $33.9 billion

6 United Kingdom Europe $33.7 billion

7 Germany Europe $32.8 billion

8 Australia Oceania $17.8 billion

9 Turkey Europe $16.9 billion

10 Austria Europe $16.7 billion

The entire top-50 list from the World Tourism Organisation is at World Tourism rankings.

[edit]

History

Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts of the world to see great buildings or other works of art, to learn new languages, to experience new cultures, or to taste new cuisine. As long ago as the time of the Roman Republic places such as Baiae were popular coastal resorts for the rich.

The Persepolis in Fars, Iran.

The word tourism was used by 1811 and tourist by 1840.[6] In 1936 the League of Nations defined foreign tourist as someone travelling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. It successor, the United Nations amended this definition in 1945 by including a maximum stay of six months.[7]

[edit]

Pilgrimage

The Acropolis, Athens, Greece.

The history of European tourism can perhaps be said to originate with the medieval pilgrimage. Although undertaken primarily for religious reasons, the pilgrims in the Canterbury Tales quite clearly saw the experience as a kind of holiday (the term itself being derived from the 'holy day' and its associated leisure activities). Pilgrimages created a variety of tourist aspects that still exist - bringing back souvenirs, obtaining credit with foreign banks (in medieval times utilizing international networks established by Jews and Lombards), and making use of space available on existing forms of transport (such as the use of medieval English wine ships bound for Vigo by pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela). Pilgrimages are still important in modern tourism - such as to Lourdes or Knock in Ireland. But there are secular equivalents - Graceland and the grave of Jim Morrison in Père Lachaise Cemetery.

During the 17th century, it became fashionable in England to undertake a Grand Tour. The sons of the nobility and gentry were sent upon an extended tour of Europe as an educational experience. The 19th century was the golden age of the Grand Tour, and many of the fashionable visitors were painted at Rome by Pompeo Batoni. A modern equivalent of the Grand Tour is the phenomenon of the backpacker, although cultural holidays, such as those offered by Swann-Hellenic, are also important.

[edit]

Health tourism

The Great Bath at the Roman Baths, in Bath, one of the world's first health tourism sites.

Health tourism has long existed, but it was not until the eighteenth century that it became important. In England, it was associated with spas, places with supposedly health-giving mineral waters, treating diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis. The most popular resorts were Bath, Cheltenham, Buxton, Harrogate, and Tunbridge Wells. Visits to take 'the waters' also allowed the visitors to attend balls and other entertainments. Continental Spas such as Carlsbad (Karlovy Vary) attracted many fashionable travellers by the nineteenth century.

[edit]

Creative tourism

Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families traveling for the purpose of (mostly interactive) educational experiences. More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as a member of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS) has directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural tourism, crafts tourism or sustainable tourism. They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travelers in the culture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences.

Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place.

[edit]

Leisure travel

Leisure travel was associated with the industrialisation of United Kingdom – the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population. Initially, this applied to the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, the factory owners, and the traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings were the first official travel company to be formed in 1758. Later, the working class could take advantage of leisure time.

The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. At Nice, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, the Hotel Carlton or the Hotel Majestic - reflecting the dominance of English customers.

[edit]

Winter tourism

Perito Moreno, Patagonia, Argentina.

Winter sports were largely invented by the British leisured classes, initially at the Swiss village of Zermatt (Valais), and St Moritz in 1864. The first packaged winter sports holidays took place in 1902 at Adelboden, Switzerland. Winter sports were a natural answer for a leisured class looking for amusement during the coldest season.

The Fun Ski & Snow Festival, which has been organized annually by Korea tourism organization since 1998 and participated by about 10,000 tourists from Asia, is one of the most successful winter tourism products in Asia. The festival provides a variety of events such as ski and sled competitions, ski and snow board lessons, performances and recreational activities. Majority of the event participants are foreign visitors who come from countries with a warm climate that have no snow. The event offers them opportunities to enjoy winter and winter sports in Korea. In addition, southern South American countries making up the Patagonia region in Chile and Argentina attract thousands of tourists every year. Skiing is extremely popular in the mountainous areas.

[edit]

Mass tourism

Taj Mahal, Agra, India.

Ciutat de les Arts i les Ciències, Valencia, Spain.

Saint Peter's Square, St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City.

Baalbeck, Lebanon.

Mass travel could only develop with improvements in technology allowed the transport of large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure interest, and greater numbers of people began to enjoy the benefits of leisure time.

In the United States, the first great seaside resort, in the European style, was Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Long Island.

In Continental Europe, early resorts included Ostend (for the people of Brussels), and Boulogne-sur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais) and Deauville (Calvados) (for Parisians).

[edit]

In Britain

The pioneer of modern mass tourism was Thomas Cook who, on 5 July 1841, organized the first package tour in history. He arranged for the rail company to charge one shilling per person for a group of 570 temperance campaigners from Leicester to a rally in Loughborough, eleven miles away. Cook was paid a share of the fares actually charged to the passengers, as the railway tickets, being legal contracts between company and passenger, could not have been issued at his own price. There had been railway excursions before, but this one included entrance to an entertainment held in private grounds, rail tickets and food for the train journey. Cook immediately saw the potential of a convenient 'off the peg' holiday product in which everything was included in one cost. He organised packages inclusive of accommodation for the Great Exhibition, and afterwards pioneered package holidays in both Britain (particularly in Scotland) and on the European continent (where Paris and the Alps were the most popular destinations).

He was soon followed by others (the Polytechnic Touring Association, Dean and Dawson etc.), with the result that the tourist industry developed rapidly in late Victorian Britain. Initially it was supported by the growing middle classes, who had time off from their work, and who could afford the luxury of travel and possibly even staying for periods of time in boarding houses.

The Bank Holidays Act 1871 introduced a statutory right for workers to take holidays, even if they were not paid at the time. By the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the tradition of the working class holiday had become firmly established in Britain. These were largely focused upon the seaside resorts.

The spread of the railway network in the 19th century resulted in the growth of Britain's seaside towns by bringing them within easy distance of Britain's urban centres. Blackpool was created by the construction of a line to Fleetwood, and some resorts were promoted by the railway companies themselves - Morecambe by the Midland Railway and Cleethorpes by the Great Central Railway. Other resorts included Scarborough in Yorkshire, servicing Leeds and Bradford; Weston-super-Mare in Somerset, catering for the inhabitants of Bristol; and Skegness, patronised by the residents of the industrial East Midlands. The cockneys of London flocked to Southend-on-Sea, mainly by Thames Steamer, and the South Coast resorts such as Broadstairs, Brighton, and Eastbourne were only a train ride away, with others further afield such as Bournemouth, Bognor Regis and Weymouth.

For a century, domestic tourism was the norm, with foreign travel being reserved for the rich or the culturally curious. A number of inland destinations, such as the English Lake District, and Snowdonia appealed to those who liked the countryside and fine scenery. The holiday camp began to appear in the 1930s, but this phenomenon really expanded in the post-war period. Butlins and Pontins set this trend, but their popularity waned with the rise of overseas package tours and the increasing comforts to which visitors became accustomed at home. Towards the end of the 20th century this market has been revived by the upmarket inland resorts of Dutch company Center Parcs.

Cox & Co, the forebear of Cox & Kings were in existence from 1758 largely entwined with the travel arrangements for the British Army serving around the Empire. While acting as 'agents' for various regiments, they organised the payment, provision, clothing and travel arrangements for members of the armed forces. In the 19th century their network of offices contained a banking and also travel department. The company became heavily involved with affairs in India and its Shipping Agency had offices in France and the Middle East.

Other phenomena that helped develop the travel industry were paid holidays:

1.5 million manual workers in Britain had paid holidays by 1925

11 million by 1939 (30% of the population in families with paid holidays)

NGOs and government agencies may sometimes promote a specific region as a tourist destination, and support the development of a tourism industry in that area. The contemporary phenomenon of mass tourism may sometimes result in overdevelopment; alternative forms of tourism such as ecotourism seek to avoid such outcomes by pursuing tourism in a sustainable way.

[edit]

International

Iguazu Falls, Argentina-Brazil border.

Niagara Falls, United States-Canada border.

Increasing speed on railways meant that the tourist industry could develop internationally. To this may be added the development of sea travel. By 1901, the number of people crossing the English Channel from England to France or Belgium had passed 0.5 million per year. Shipping companies were anxious to fill cabin space that was under-utilized.

For example, P&O found that the majority of their passengers for India and the Far East joined the ship at Marseilles. Consequently, they marketed holidays based upon sea trips from London to Lisbon and Gibraltar. Other companies diverted their older ships to operate cruises in the summer months.

However, the real age of international mass travel began with the growth of air travel after World War II. In the immediate post-war period, there was a surplus of transport aircraft, such as the popular and reliable Douglas Dakota, and a number of ex military pilots ready to fly them. They were available for charter flights, and tour operators began to use them for European destinations, such as Paris and Ostend.

Vladimir Raitz pioneered modern package tourism when on 20 May 1950 his recently founded company, Horizon, provided arrangements for a two-week holiday in Corsica. For an all inclusive price of £32.10s.-, holiday makers could sleep under canvas, sample local wines and eat a meal containing meat twice a day - this was especially attractive due to the continuing austerity measures in post-war United Kingdom. Within ten years, his company had started mass tourism to Palma (1952), Lourdes (1953), Costa Brava (1954), Sardinia (1954), Minorca (1955), Porto (1956), Costa Blanca (1957) and Costa del Sol (1959).

Great Wall of China, China.

Red Square, Moscow, Russia.

These developments coincided with a significant increase in the standard of living in Britain. Further, the contribution of affordable air travel in combination with the package tour enabled international mass tourism to develop. The postwar introduction of an international system of airline regulation was another important factor. The bilateral agreements at the heart of the system fixed seat prices, and airlines could not fill blocks of empty seats on underused flights by discounting. But if they were purchased by a tour operator and hidden within the price of an inclusive holiday package, it would be difficult to prove that discounting had taken place - even though it was obvious that it had!

Another significant development also happened at the end of this decade. The devaluation of the Spanish peseta made Spain appear a particularly attractive destination. The cheapness of the cost of living attracted increasing numbers of visitors. Mass package tourism has at times been an exploitative process, in which tour operators in a country with a high standard of living make use of development opportunities and low operating costs in a country with a lower standard of living. However, as witness the development of many tourist areas in previously poor parts of the world, and the concomitant rise in standards of living, when there is equality of bargaining power, both parties can gain economic benefits from this arrangement.

Spain and the Balearic Islands became major tourist destinations, and development probably peaked in the 1980s. At the same time, British tour operators developed the Algarve in Portugal. The continuing search for new, cheaper, destinations spread mass tourism to the Greek Islands, Italy, Tunisia, Morocco, Turkey, and more recently Croatia.

For someone living in greater London, Venice today is almost as accessible as Brighton was 100 years ago. Consequently, the British seaside resort experienced a marked decline from the 1970s onwards. Some, such as New Brighton, Merseyside have disappeared. Others have reinvented themselves, and now cater to daytrippers, the weekend break market or business conferences.

[edit]

Recent developments

Disneyland, Tokyo, Japan.

There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe where international travel for short breaks is common. Tourists have higher levels of disposable income and greater leisure time and they are also better-educated and have more sophisticated tastes. There is now a demand for a better quality products, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass market for beach vacations; people want more specialised versions, such as 'Club 18 -30', quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays, or niche market-targeted destination hotels. As well, people are taking second short break holidays.

The developments in technology and transport infrastructure such as jumbo jets and low-budget airlines have made many types of tourism more affordable. There have also been changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who living as a tourist all the year round. This is facilitated by internet purchasing of tourism products. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor- made package requested by the customer upon impulse.

Times Square, New York City, United States.

There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11, 2001 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations such as Bali and European cities. Some of the tourist destinations, including the beach resorts of Cancún have lost popularity due to shifting tastes. In this context, the excessive building and environmental destruction often associated with traditional "sun and beach" tourism may contribute to a destination's saturation and subsequent decline. Spain's Costa Brava, a popular 1960s and 1970s beach location is now facing a crisis in its tourist industry. On December 26, 2004 a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake hit Asian countries bordering the Indian Ocean, and also the Maldives. Tens of thousands of lives were lost, and many tourists died. This, together with the vast clean-up operation in place, has stopped or severely hampered tourism to the area.

The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists.

Sustainable tourism is becoming more popular as people start to realize the devastating effects poorly planned tourism can have on communities. Receptive tourism is now growing at a very rapid rate in many developing countries, where it is often the most important economic activity in local GDP.

More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travelers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries around the globe offer examples of this type of tourism development, including the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.

In recent years, second holidays or vacations have become more popular as people's discretionary income increases. Typical combinations are a package to the typical mass tourist resort, with a winter skiing holiday or weekend break to a city or national park.

[edit]

Growth

International tourism receipts in 2005

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey.

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) forecasts that international tourism will continue growing at the average annual rate of 4 %.[8] By 2020 Europe will remain the most popular destination, but its share will drop from 60% in 1995 to 46%. Long-haul will grow slightly faster than intraregional travel and by 2020 its share will increase from 18% in 1995 to 24%.

With the advent of e-commerce, tourism products have become one of the most traded items on the internet. Tourism products and services have been made available through intermediaries, although tourism providers (hotels, airlines, etc.) can sell their services directly. This has put pressure on intermediaries from both on-line and traditional shops.

It has been suggested there is a strong correlation between Tourism expenditure per capita and the degree to which countries play in the global context.[9] Not only as a result of the important economic contribution of the tourism industry, but also as an indicator of the degree of confidence with which global citizens leverage the resources of the globe for the benefit of their local economies. This is why any projections of growth in tourism may serve as an indication of the relative influence that each country will exercise in the future.

Space tourism is expected to "take off" in the first quarter of the 21st century, although compared with traditional destinations the number of tourists in orbit will remain low until technologies such as a space elevator make space travel cheap.

Technological improvement is likely to make possible air-ship hotels, based either on solar-powered airplanes or large dirigibles. Underwater hotels, such as Hydropolis, expected to open in Dubai in 2009, will be built. On the ocean tourists will be welcomed by ever larger cruise ships and perhaps floating cities.

Some futurists expect that movable hotel "pods" will be created that could be temporarily erected anywhere on the planet, where building a permanent resort would be unacceptable politically, economically or environmentally.

[edit]

Negative impacts This short section requires expansion.

Attracting a high volume of tourists can have negative impacts, such as the impact of 33 million tourists a year on the city of New York,[10] or the potential to impact fragile environments,[11] or the impact of the December 26, 2004 tsunami on the tourists themselves.[12]

[edit]

See also

At Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Tourism at:

The School of Tourism

Tourism by country

Backpacking (travel)

Eco-tourism

Hospitality industry

Hospitality management studies

Hospitality Services

Hotel

hotel management

List of vacation resorts

List of types of lodging

Package holiday

Passport

Pilgrimage

Resort town

Sustainable tourism

Tourism geography

Tourism in literature

Tourist trap

Tour guide

Transport

Tourism technology

Travel agency

World Tourism Organization

World-Point Academy of Tourism

Accessible Tourism

Township tourism

Rural tourism

[edit]

References

Promoting Tourism in Rural America. USDA, National Agricultural Library, Rural Information Center. 2004.

Rural Tourism. USDA, Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service.

Travel and Tourism: An Overlooked Industry in the U.S. and Tenth DistrictPDF (595 KiB). By Chad Wilkerson. Economic Review, Third Quarter 2003. Federal Reserve Board in Kansas.

Economic Research: Economic Impact of Travel and Tourism. Travel Industry Association of America. 2004.

^ World Tourism Barometer (p.8)

^ (French) Direction du tourisme (p.8), French government website

^ UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. World Tourism Organization (2007).

^ Werner Hunziker and Kurt (1941). Grundriss der allgemeinen Fremdenverkehrslehre. OCLC # 69064371.

^ International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism

^ Online Etymology Dictionary: tour. Retrieved on 2008-03-01.

^ Theobald, William F. (1998). Global Tourism, p. 10. ISBN 0750640227.

^ Long-term Prospects: Tourism 2020 Vision. World Tourism (2004).

^ airports & tourists. Global Culture (2007).

^ Kirby, David (September 27, 1998). The Tourist Trap; With All Those Visitors Trampling the Welcome Mat, Can New York Be the Host With the Most for Everyone? (Web). News Article. The New York Times. Retrieved on March 21, 2007.

^ Nicholls, Henry (Wednesday April 19, 2006). The tourist trap (The Galapagos islands are the world's prime eco-tourism destination. Now the sheer number of visitors is endangering their future ) (Web). News article. Guardian. Retrieved on March 21, 2007.

^ Kurlantzick, Joshua (Sunday, January 9, 2005). The True Meaning of the Tourist Trap (Web). News article. The Washington Post. Retrieved on March 21, 2007.

The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO/OMT) is a specialized agency of the United ‎Nations and the leading international organization in the field of tourism. It serves as a ‎global forum for tourism policy issues and a practical source of tourism know-how.‎

UNWTO plays a central and decisive role in promoting the development of responsible, ‎sustainable and universally accessible tourism, paying particular attention to the ‎interests of developing countries.‎

The Organization encourages the implementation ‎of the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, with a view to ensuring that member ‎countries, tourist destinations and businesses maximize the positive economic, ‎social and cultural effects of tourism and fully reap its benefits, while minimizing its ‎negative social and environmental impacts.‎

Its membership includes 160 countries and territories and more than 350 Affiliate ‎Members representing the private sector, educational institutions, tourism associations ‎and local tourism authorities.‎

Direct actions that strengthen and support the efforts of National Tourism ‎Administrations are carried out by UNWTO's regional representatives (Africa, the ‎Americas, East Asia and the Pacific, Europe, the Middle East and South Asia) based at ‎the Headquarters in Madrid.‎

UNWTO is committed to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, geared ‎toward reducing poverty and fostering sustainable development.‎

Ecotourism: Direct Road to Ruin

by Dr. Olin B. Rhodes, Jr.

I write these words having just spent four days within Denezhkin Kamen, a Zapovednik located deep in the Ural mountains. I am fortunate to have experienced this adventure and to have worked with the Zapovednik staff over the past two years from my position as an Assistant Professor of wildlife ecology at Purdue University. Our work together has focused on the scientific aspects of the Zapovednik system, encompassing both nature protection and long-term ecological monitoring. The goal of our collaboration and that of the symposium we have just held with a subset of the Ural mountains Zapovedniks is to use modern technologies, such as GIS, to enhance the abilities of the preserve personnel to collaborate with one another, as well as with western scientists. We recognize that there are many challenges ahead for the Zapovednik system, in light of the economic and political changes that are now occurring in Russia, and our strategy is to help the preserves to survive without altering their basic mission and unique status in the global environmental scheme. Russian Zapovedniks, despite their turbu lent history, represent a rather unique opportunity for the global environmental community to invest in true preservation of natural territories and a chance for long-term ecological research to exist within the framework of large, set aside areas rather than within the matrix of a human dominated landscape.

The issue it seems is how to help Zapovedniks survive in light of the current financial crisis. I am told that tourism and the dollars that such activities would bring is one potential solution to the problem. I will not argue that tourism would not in fact bring dollars to the preserves, it probably would. However, when the last guest lodge is built and the multitude of amenities that tourists require are in place, there will be no more Zapovedniks. For it is the very absence of people that defines the Zapovednik system. In essence, to save the Zapovednik system with tourist dollars would be to destroy it and with that destruction comes the loss of something that is integral to Russian society and the oneness of the Russian people with their land.

I am a scientist, and being a scientist I see the value of the Zapovednik system for what it is today and has been for decades. It is a wealth of knowledge and promise for our future. It is a system of strictly protected lands in a world where so few such lands exist. It is a basis to stimulate collaboration between east and west using the language of science as its foundation. It is a global resource that deserves our best efforts for its protection, not its well-intended, yet unknowing destruction. It is an opportunity for preservation in a world where few such opportunities are left.

Russia is a country with vast natural resources and many opportunities for tourist activities that would not involve the loss of the Zapovednik system as a cost. For instance, many of the lands now managed by the Federal Forest Service of Russia would make spectacu lar additions to the National Park system of Russia and would not require the loss of the Zapovednik mission. A Zapoved nik changed to a national park for tourists is forever a national park; the land cannot be recovered to its former purpose.

Ironically, as is often the case, we are on the same side. While we all wish to save this undeniably unique resource for posterity, we differ only in our method of salvation. My arguments are simple in that I am convinced that the introduction of tourists into the Zapovednik system will inherently lead to its destruction. My strategy is based on the fact that Zapovedniks are valuable scientific and societal resources. However, as with all such assessments of natural value, the global value of Zapovedniks is a human- derived quantity and cannot be demon strated without our help. Given the length of time that Zapovedniks have persisted and the wealth of information that they have accumulated in their Chronicles of Nature (Letopis' Prirody), I. submit that their scientific and societal values can be demonstrated effectively. Furthermore, I propose that their world wide value can be demonstrated by building effective collaborations with western scientists, leading to the genera tion of funding toward the support of their mission and the achievement of a greater public awareness of what the Zapovednik system has to offer the world.

Dr. Olin E. Rhodes, Jr. is an Assistant

Professor of wildlife ecology at Purdue

University.

Russia, space tourism, and exploration

by Taylor Dinerman

Monday, August 22, 2005

Last week, when Space Adventures announced their plan to fly tourists around the Moon using hardware from Russia’s RSC Energia corporation, no one jumped up and said that it couldn’t be done or that the plan’s budget ($200 million) was unrealistic. In fact, the Russians, through a combination of historical accidents, hard work, and hard-earned expertise, have established themselves as providers of robust, reliable, and low cost space hardware. Not only that, but the Russian space industry’s success is a source of national pride. This allows them to make a few, modest demands on the Russian government for both political and financial support.

The Russian civil space industry is not (except for the ISS) dependent on the government for its funding, and this has forced them to seek imaginative ways to stay in business, as well as to work hard on old-fashioned capitalist virtues, such as return on investment and strict cost and quality control. Proton’s success as a commercial satellite launcher is evidence that this sort of capitalism can pay off. Since 1991 they have rarely been able to lobby the Duma for any special “earmarks”. There have, of course, been lots of reports and rumors of corruption, but this has not led to the collapse of the space industry complex as happened with other Russian industries. Instead, they managed to take what was left of the Soviet space program and built it into a new force, committed to making money through international cooperation and commerce.If NASA can maintain the momentum for its planned return to the Moon, the Block DM and its associated Kurs system could become the basis for a commercial cargo transport service.

Two of the systems the Russians plan to use in their joint Moon project with Space Adventures are the Block DM upper stage and the Kurs guidance and docking system. The plan is to first launch a Soyuz with the paying customers aboard into low Earth orbit or perhaps to the ISS, and them launch a Block DM with a Kurs system attached to rendezvous with the Soyuz. At the right moment the Block DM would ignite and send the Soyuz into a trajectory that would swing around the Moon and then back for Earth.

In the future, if NASA can maintain the momentum for its planned return to the Moon, the Block DM and its associated Kurs system could become the basis for a commercial cargo transport service. After launch on either a Proton or Zenit rocket, the Block DM/Kurs could rendezvous and dock with a cargo carrier similar to the European ATV or even a modified version of the Italian made MPLM used on the Shuttle and the Russian upper stage could then send the ATV or MPLM into orbit around the Moon where a reusable vehicle launched from the lunar surface, could rendezvous and dock with it and ferry the cargo down to the Moon Base.

While the Block DM can generate enough thrust to get a Soyuz to the Moon, getting into lunar orbit will need a different set of engines which can be made part of the cargo vehicle. Nonetheless, the Block DM looks like it could have a great commercial future as the driving force of a system architecture that would help keep supplies flowing to a future Moon base.

Having an alternative way to get the contents of a pressurized container to the Moon will provide for an extra layer of security for NASA’s lunar base project. The Russians will, no doubt, want to play other roles in this project, but this could be the easiest and the most profitable one. Negotiating those roles on a commercial basis will be difficult, since the US Congress is generally not ready to spend US taxpayers’ money on foreign suppliers. Even if the Congress and the White House agree to fix the Iran Nonproliferation Act problem, there is no guarantee that another issue might come up to interfere with US-Russian cooperation, this is why multiple cargo transport methods will be needed.The Russian government’s space program may not be doing much, aside from its central role in the ISS, but Russia’s space companies seem to be healthy and profitable.

One item that needs tending, too, is to make sure that the Russians, Chinese, and Americans ensure that all of their respective pressurized spacecraft can dock with each other. The Russian Kurs system has, over the years, proven effective: it, or an androgynous version of its docking mechanism, should be the standard interface that all spacefaring nations can agree on. RSC Energia could sell manufacturing licenses to the US, China, and eventually others, with the proviso that however they modify or improve them, they should all be able to fit together in an emergency.

The Russian government’s space program may not be doing much, aside from its central role in the ISS, but Russia’s space companies seem to be healthy and profitable. For Moscow politicians, space is an investment in national pride. Companies like RSC Energia are not only able to build on that pride and on the glamour of the whole endeavor, but have shown themselves to be smart businessmen as well.

The development of rural tourism

James B. Lewis

For the past several years, interest in rural tourism development has grown. And because of the renewed interest in America's rural communities, it should continue to grow. This nation has discovered that approximately 96 percent of its population lives on four percent of its land, which means that four percent of U.S. citizens are spread out over 96 percent of our landmass. As such, although there are many people who have always been interested in rural research, many of the problems associated with rural communities have become popular over the past few years and are being researched and discussed by both academics and community leaders.

One of the most popular issues is rural community development and the use of tourism as a tool for that development. There is a wealth of information about rural tourism including economic analysis of tourism, its impacts, and its affect on people. In addition, there has been a great deal published that concerns those various topics. In fact, in the September 1993 issue of Parks & Recreation, Brian Hill outlined the opportunities and challenges presented by rural tourism. Rural tourism has grown a great deal since his article, as has the research on the problems and challenges of tourism. However, many of the factors and challenges he talked about in 1993 are still prevalent today.

The intent of this article is to discuss a new issue (not discussed by Hill) in rural tourism development, that of the developmental process itself. One of the greatest challenges to rural tourism has actually been produced by the popularity and growth of tourism in rural communities. Because tourism is so popular, rural community leaders are racing to establish tourism in their communities, yet they often lack the understanding of the tourism development process that makes it difficult to generate tourism. If rural leaders do not understand how tourism begins or what processes are involved with tourism, they cannot possibly understand or deal with the resulting impacts of tourism in their community.

Rural Community Development Tool

Rural communities, just like urban areas, are constantly searching for economic development opportunities. Recently, as federal and state governments have curtailed funding to rural communities, economic development has become vitally important. As rural leaders search for economic development opportunities, one particular type of development that has become very attractive is tourism. Tourism is a viable method of development because it is economically feasible, relatively clean (does not rely on manufacturing), enhances the recreation opportunities in a community, and is a method of economic advancement and development that can be undertaken by the residents and leaders of a rural community.

Rural tourism development is attractive because of the perception that it is a clean and economical way to generate revenue. The economics of tourism are such that very often the revenue from tourism is generated by tourists (non-natives or non-residents of a community.) Visitors generate revenue as they spend money and pay tourism-dedicated taxes. For example, many communities have an innkeeper's tax (the most popular type of tourism-dedicated tax) on hotel and motel rooms. Typically an innkeeper's tax (bed tax) is incurred by visitors to the community, not residents of the community. Hence, the tax is popular because it generates revenue without taxing the residents, and the revenue is usually dedicated to tourism development. Thus, a community can often develop tourism without taxing the residents of the community, which makes tourism attractive not only to the leaders of the community but to the residents, as well. There is also a variety of other taxes that creates revenue from tourism; and most tax the visitors, not the residents. These include tourism-dedicated food and beverage tax and special licensing taxes.

The development of tourism in a rural community is perceived as a "dean" industry. For many years, rural communities were involved in a practice referred to as "buffalo hunting." Buffalo hunting involves rural leaders developing their communities by attracting companies and their manufacturing plants. Companies were offered tax concessions and cheap land as an attraction. However, the combination of tax concessions and the lack of a labor pool and community infrastructure often resulted in a net loss for a community and a very noisy, dirty manufacturing plant. Thus, attracting manufacturing and new business proved to be a difficult task, one that often affected a community's quality of life. Rural leaders discovered they could develop tourism without the tax concessions, the large labor pool, and the large, ugly manufacturing plant; and often, tourism development improves the quality of life. Therefore, the development of tourism is more effective -- and cleaner-- than attempting to attract manufacturing plants. Because of the opportunities presented by tourism development, there is no longer the need to scramble to bring a manufacturing company to a community.

In addition to creating jobs and revenue, rural tourism often increases the recreational opportunities in the community. For example, attractions are created or built (built tourism) to attract tourists, but at the same time, residents of the community benefit from using them. Sometimes the influx of tourists results in new recreational opportunities and improvements to parks, instances that are not often found in a rural community. Tourism also frequently enhances the spectrum of recreational opportunities in a rural community. For example, hotels or motels may build attractions for tourists that can also be used by the residents of the community.

Perhaps the most attractive thing about developing tourism in a rural community is that the leaders and residents of the community can foster pride and establish responsibility for the process of development. That is, the community can utilize local resources as well as local organizations to create tourism. Tourism is an opportunity that residents can create from within the community; it does not have to rely on out-of-state businesses or companies. New research has shown that this idea of development within the community has begun to take root. It is something that a rural community can do by itself with assistance from -- not reliance on -- outside sources.

Disadvantages to Rural Communities

Of course, rural tourism development does not come without a price. While it may improve revenue, quality of life, and recreational opportunities, there are reasons to be concerned about the social, cultural, and environmental impacts of tourism on a rural community. Many rural leaders and residents have discovered (often by surprise) that encouraging large numbers of visitors to come to a small community often creates problems.

The social and cultural problems can be numerous. Socially, the small rural community atmosphere dissipates quickly. Neighbors may not be able to stand at their white picket fence and chat with one another because there is a crowd of tourists on the street. In fact, it is not unusual for residents of a rural community that features popular tourism attractions to become unhappy when they find that at peak tourism times a simple five-minute trip to the post office can become a two-hour ordeal. In addition, residents of a rural community often do not have the same perception of tourism as does the tourist. Tourists flock to rural communities to soak up the town's "down to earth," friendly quality, while residents often view tourists as outsiders.

As tourism becomes popular, the culture of a rural community can also change rapidly. People tend to perceive a rural community as a place where children play on safe streets, where there is little or no crime, and where everyone welcomes you to their house. In many rural communities where tourism has developed, that perception is no longer true. The hidden side of rural tourism development (one not often discussed) includes crime and other serious societal problems that are imported to a rural community, problems that can radically alter a community's culture.

Research has also illustrated that rural tourism development can create its share of environmental problems. The allure of a rural community is often its quiet, unaffected beauty and "quaint" charm. The advent of tourism creates the need for infrastructure, which often results in litter, noise, and air pollution in addition to other environmental problems. For example, the influx of tourists to Brown County, Indiana, has granted Brown County State Park the dubious distinction of being one of the most visited state parks in the nation. As a result, the park, known for its unique environmental beauty, now often suffers from overcrowding and a fragile ecosystem. Raccoon State Recreation Area, located in west central Indiana, is a very popular recreation area, but because of overcrowding, it is often forced to close its gates to tourists.

Tourism development may also cause infrastructure-related problems for a community. The demand for amenities -- hotels, restaurants, and even public restrooms -- places a strain upon the infrastructure resources of a rural community. Rural communities often lack the resources to erect new buildings, create new sewer systems, or supply police and fire services. The influx of tourists forces a rural community to pave roads, provide better police and fire protection, keep the streets clean, and maintain a stressed infrastructure. In order to maintain such infrastructure, a small rural community needs money, a resource that is oftentimes unavailable to rural community governments.

Thus, rural tourism development, a popular method of economic development, one that has created a plethora of recreational opportunities in rural communities, has affected the very social fabric of communities, forcing them to change the way they do business and to begin to understand the tourist.

Rural Tourism Development

The development of tourism is often seen as a panacea for the ills of a rural community. Rural communities have resorted to tourism in an attempt to fend off a variety of economic problems. It is interesting that although the overall economy of the United States is doing well, the rural economy has been struggling for many years. The rural economy is much different from the general economy, so much so, that it is not unusual for rural economies to struggle while the nation's general economy flourishes.

The problems, too numerous to list, that exist in rural areas include the flight of the young from the community, persistent poverty of residents and government, a lack of employment opportunities, and an overall lack of a stable infrastructure. As stated earlier, many rural communities have established tourism to generate much needed revenue, which, in turn, translates into jobs to keep people in the community. Of course, it is not that simple. A community cannot simply decide to develop tourism, expecting that the next day all of its problems will be solved. Nor will tourism solve all of the rural problems in the country. However, as rural communities choose to develop tourism, rural leaders need to understand the tourism development process. In order for rural leaders to understand tourism development, there must first exist examples of success, resource guides, and trained qualified people to teach tourism development. Unfortunately, there are too many rural communities attempting to develop tourism that do not have the necessary means to carry out the process.

The process of developing tourism in a rural community has not been clearly defined. Tourism research has emphasized marketing and the investigation of impacts. There is, however, very little knowledge of the process of developing tourism in the United States. One prominent tourism researcher has pointed out that while we, as a profession, spend a lot of time researching the impacts and economics of tourism, we have largely ignored the development process. He goes on to suggest that it is difficult to understand tourism without first understanding the process that is involved in developing tourism.

Is it important to delineate the process of tourism development in a rural community? Will understanding the development process assist rural leaders in developing tourism, or give them the "right stuff' to develop tourism? It is difficult to answer these questions with any certainty, but understanding the process and the steps involved would surely help leaders -- especially those in a rural community -- to make informed decisions regarding tourism. As communities develop tourism, the same mistakes are committed again and again; and most communities are forced to begin the process from square one. There is virtually no communication regarding the process, nor is there general information available that allows rural leaders to emulate what has been successful in other communities.

Because research has not concentrated on the process, there is not a great deal known. Many believe that a rural community makes the decision to develop tourism at a town meeting, a handful of the residents agree, and the next day the community begins the tourism development process. Needless to say, this is not exactly how the process works.

There is some research that has modeled the tourism development process. Perhaps the most well-known model is the one of tourism development proposed by Butler in 1980. He proposed that tourism was created and moved through a cycle, much like the lifecycle of a new product on the market. Butler's model is often applied to tourism development, but there appears to be one shortcoming. His model does not take into account that the development of tourism in a rural community is much different from the development of tourism in an urban area. As stated earlier, rural communities, because of problems with the economy and the unique way that things are often done, are different. Thus, a generic model of tourism development may not necessarily apply to rural tourism development. As rural communities develop tourism, a process model that delineates the process exclusively for rural areas should be developed.

The Rural Tourism Development Process

Generally, from what little research is available, the process of rural tourism development usually begins when an individual or an organization believes that there is a resource in the community that would be of interest to tourists. That resource might be something natural, such as a park, or something constructed that might be unique to the area (for example, the covered bridges of Parke County, Indiana). This is considered the first stage of development.

The second stage involves "formalizing" the tourism process. Formal organizations would be started, local businesses would get involved, and the beginning of a plan to market tourism would start. During this stage, the individuals or groups involved often attempt to secure resources and look for funding to develop or enhance tourism attractions.

In the third stage, development has begun, and marketing is in full swing. Usually in a rural community, this is when you will see the development of special events and attractions. In addition, various tourism attractions will realize that instead of competing for the tourism dollar, they must work together to bring visitors to the community.

Finally, as tourism becomes a developed process, the community may establish a formal tourism organization, such as a convention and visitors bureau, which will usually implement tourism taxes. At this point, many communities have begun to work together to establish regional tourism, and tourism development becomes a centralized process in a rural community.

Tourism is usually developed in a rural community because of the influence of one person or a very small group of people. Contrary to certain research, it appears that rural tourism development is generally neither a community decision nor a decision that involves many people. It is a decision made by a person or persons who have the resources to provide for development. For example, in several rural communities, it is a wealthy entrepreneur who makes the decision. In many communities, it is an area native who knows the community well and has an interest in it. Surprisingly, tourism development is not a community decision and may not be supported by all residents of the community.

While the concept of tourism development is changing everywhere, the changes felt in rural communities have been numerous. In the past, the government was responsible for community development, but today, because of myriad problems in a rural community, the government has its hands full. The role of rural governments in the provision of infrastructure development is necessary, but tourism development often proceeds without the assistance of government. That is the new wave in rural development. And in rural tourism, a community must be able to develop tourism using resources from the government. Surprisingly, some research has shown that people who develop tourism don't desire this government involvement.

Conclusion

Of course, it is not possible to develop a standardized guide for the development of tourism in a rural community. When developing tourism, one cannot say that tourism development in a Nebraska community will mirror that of a community in Indiana. However, the different communities will develop tourism in similar ways, using similar methods. Thus, what is needed is a resource guide that proposes different methods of tourism development and provides tried and true scenarios. Rural communities should be given the opportunity to obtain the resources that will assist them in developing tourism. Tourism development tools include research, resource guides, how-to guides from successful communities, case studies, workshops, conferences, and training for rural leaders. The tourism development process must be delineated so that it can be illustrated and explained to rural community leaders. It is not possible to throw money at rural tourism and expect it to grow. Park, recreation, and tourism professionals must provide rural communities with the tools to develop tourism.

References

Butler, R.W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 29, 5-12.

Hill, B. (1993, September). The future of rural tourism. Parks & Recreation, pp. 98-123.

Pearce, D. (1989). Tourist development (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons.

COPYRIGHT 1998 National Recreation and Park Association

COPYRIGHT 2004 Gale Group

New frontiers Briefing on Tourism, Development and Environment Issues in the Mekong Subregion

Vol. 14, No. 1 January-February 2008

1. The region

CHINA LEADS ASIA-PACIFIC OUTBOUND TRAVEL MARKET

[Xinhua-Net: 8.2.08; China Daily: 4.2.08] - THE Chinese mainland is expected to record 21.6 million outbound tourists in the first half of 2008 with a year-on-year increase of 12.4 per cent. That means China will lead the whole Asian-Pacific outbound travel market in the first six months this year.

    According to the latest MasterCard Worldwide Index of Travel (MWIT), Asian-Pacific outbound markets will continue to be buoyant despite the economic uncertainty in the global financial market. The market will see 79.5 million outbound tourists in the next six months, with over one quarter from the Chinese mainland, the report said.

    It attributed the booming outbound travel market to the increasing number of middle-class Chinese. The number of China's middle-class families is expected rise to 100 million in 2016 from 35 million in 2006 in metropolises, such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou.

As more countries get Approved Destination Status (ADS) to receive Chinese tourists, hospitality industry executives over the world are scrambling to find ways to attract this new driver of international travel business. But their success, analysts say, will finally depend on their understanding of Chinese culture and customs, and creating a comfortable tourism environment for these uniquely different guests.

“There is a bestseller in China titled Success Depends on Details. Overseas travel operators would do well to take to heart the message of that book when targeting Chinese customers,” says Xu Fan, member of the professional committee of the United Nations’ World Tourism Organization. Xu’s suggestion alludes to the unique tastes and preferences of Chinese travellers as well as their diverse inclinations and expectations when touring a foreign land, often stemming from regional characteristics.

The Chinese are characterized by diverse regional cultures and traits. Some tourists may prefer to go to the museum while others to designer boutiques. Wide income gaps also lend to this diversity of tourist preferences. Clearly, treating Chinese tourists as a homogenous entity is suicidal and the key to success lies in formulating tailored promotion strategies to meet the demands of various outbound travel groups.

Chinese consumers are getting more sophisticated, according to Grace Pan, head of Travel and Leisure Research for The Nielsen Company, China. The research firm has conducted a series of studies on the Chinese outbound travel sector and finds service and product designs outweigh prices as key elements influencing travel decisions of the Chinese. Hot porridge and salted vegetables for breakfast, kettle at hand for access to boiled water and Chinese-language signs in rooms, for example, would go a long way in drawing Chinese tourists. 

MEKONG NATIONS TO BOOST TOURISM

[The Nation: 22.1.08; E-Travel Blackboard Asia: 29.1.08] - THE Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS) nations expect tourist arrivals to reach 52 million by 2015, against 25 million last year, with better infrastructure and services. Tourism ministers from Thailand, Cambodia, China, Laos, Burma and Vietnam as part of the ASEAN Tourism Forum, held in Bangkok from 17 – 26 January. They announced a target to increase the number of visitors to the region to about 10 million over the next seven or eight years.

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) offered US$40 million to finance tourism development projects particularly infrastructure-related. Tourism officials approved marketing strategies and tourism development plans for the region to encourage visitors to stay for longer periods. There were also discussions to have a common GMS visa in the near future and to promote three key areas to tourists - ecotourism, culture and heritage, and adventure. To accomplish the goal, the six nations are called to improve tourism standards and services, enhance the skills of tourism managers, public officials and industry workers. 

BURMA

TOURISM DOWN ALMOST HALF AFTER PROTESTS

[Reiters News: 4.2.08] – TOURIST arrivals in Burma almost halved in the last three months of 2007 after the military junta crushed popular monk-led protests, killing at least 31 people, according to the government-controlled Myanmar Times. The English-language weekly said the number of foreign visitors fell 24 per cent in October, immediately after the crackdown, and were down 44 per cent in the last quarter of the year from the same period of 2006.

"Tourist arrivals during the whole year fell by 8.8 per cent in 2007 from a year ago," Deputy Tourism Minister Aye Myint Kyu, a brigadier-general, was quoted as saying.

According to Burma’s Central Statistical Organization, 349,877 tourists visited Burma in 2006, and arrivals in the first eight months of 2007 showed a slight increase. However, the suppression of the monk-led protests, including the secretly filmed shooting of a Japanese journalist on Sule Pagoda Road in Rangoon, caused worldwide outrage and led to groups canceling tours. he junta blamed the foreign media and dissident reporters sneaking footage and pictures out via the Internet for causing the plunge in arrivals.

"Some foreigners attempted to tarnish the image of Myanmar by posting in the websites the photos of the protest walks," Aye Myint Kyu wrote recently in state-run newspapers under a widely known pseudonym. "The photos and news of the incidents on the Sule Pagoda Road had a strong negative impact on the nation's tourism industry," he said of protests in central Rangoon.

Hoteliers reported occupancy rates down by as much as 70 per cent during the normal year-end high season and were forced to slash rates to attract visitors.

The monk-led protests in August and September were the biggest challenge to decades of military rule since a mass uprising in 1988. The United Nations says at least 31 people were killed in the subsequent crackdown, in which the junta admits 2,927 people were arrested. 

JUNTA REOPENS ANCIENT PALACE TO LURE BACK TOURISTS

[Ethical Traveler website: Feb. 2008] - IN an attempt to entice tourists to the military-ruled country, Burma's Ministry of Culture has reopened the Thiri Zeya Bumi Pagan Golden Palace. The palace—whose reconstruction began several years ago—is one of the most impressive remnants of the ancient city of Pagan, which flourished as a Buddhist centre from the 11th to the 13th centuries. The site spreads across 80 kms and encompasses over 2,000 ruins.

The junta hopes that the reopening will inject a much-needed boost to the country's tourism, which took a heavy hit after the violence that erupted following last fall's pro-democracy rallies.

On 15 January, the UK's Trades Union Congress (TUC), in conjunction with the London-based NGO Tourism Concern, renewed the call for a tourism boycott of Burma, citing evidence of child labor in the development of tourist infrastructure and the displacement of people near tourist attractions—among other human rights abuses—as rationale. The boycott originated over a decade ago with democratically-elected Burmese leader Aung San Suu Kyi, who is still under house arrest in Rangoon. Whether Pagan's Golden Palace will invite tourists to break the boycott remains to be seen. 