ГОС по анг.яз / Топики / topiki_vse_v_odnom

Dickens was born on 1812 at a house in Hampshire. His father, John Dickens, worked as a clerk in the pay office of the Royal Dockyard. Family moved to London in 1814 when John was posted there. His education over at the age of 15. Employed by a firm of solicitors. Made a great impression as a lively character, a skilled mimic, with an encyclopedic knowledge of London. First short story published in 1833. Continued his success as a reporter, joining the The Morning Chronicle in 1834. Married in 1836. Wrote Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, and shorter pieces. After completing The Old Curiosity Shop and the much less popular Barnaby Rudge in 1841, set off to visit the United States during the first half of 1842. On his return, wrote American Notes for General Circulation, which was received badly in the USA and lukewarmly in the UK . Martin Chuzzlewit, begun at the end of 1842, was not immediately popular. Christmas stories, minor works, visits to France and Italy , amateur dramatics and other activities assumed greater importance, but two major works completed. Dombey and Son, begun in 1846, and David Copperfield, begun in 1849, were more serious and more carefully thought out than previous novels. Gave first public readings of his works in 1858. Established in 1859 a new weekly journal, All The Year Round, which replaced Household Words. Serialisation of A Tale of Two Cities began with first number. Contributed two other major works during this period: Great Expectations and Our Mutual Friend. Readings assumed greater importance. Involved in major rail accident, 1865. Last Christmas story published in 1867. With failing health, devoted much of his energy to exhausting reading tours, visiting the USA for a second time in 1867/68. Completed nearly half of The Mystery of Edwin Drood. Died at Gad's Hill on 9 June 1870 . Buried in Westminster Abbey, London

O'Henry

O'Henry's real name was William Sydney Porter. He was born in Greensboro, a little town in North Caroline in l862. O'Henry is one of the most widely published American authors. His works have been translated into nearly every language. He has been called "the American Maupassant" and is ranked among the world's outstanding short-story writers. The best of these were published in books: "Cabbages and Kings", "The Four Million", "Heart of the West", "The Voice of the City" and others The works of O'Henry reflect a specific period in American literature- the turn of the century. O'Henry's comments on society had considerable force. His credo was - art should be true, democratic, it should address contemporary life and embrace all aspects of life. O'Henry was an outstanding humourist. He worked out and enriched all the types of the short story: the anecdote, the adventure story, tales and sketches. He was most famous for his stories of city life. O'Henry wrote about 150 stories with a New York background. O'Henry could work out a plot that would keep the reader in suspense up to the surprising end. He was a born writer of great talent. The conversation is witty, humorous, and often exact and precise. His works has considerable influence on American literature. His love for humanity, for the common people, his critical attitude towards injustice attract readers to this day.

O. Henry (1862-1910) was a prolific American short-story writer, a master of surprise endings, who wrote about the life of ordinary people in New York City. A twist of plot, which turns on an ironic or coincidental circumstance, is typical of O. Henry's stories.

William Sydney Porter (O. Henry) was born in Greensboro, North Carolina. His father, Algernon Sidney Porter, was a physician. When William was three, his mother died, and he was raised by his paternal grandmother and aunt. William was an avid reader, but at the age of fifteen he left school, and then worked in a drug store and on a Texas ranch. He moved to Houston, where he had a number of jobs, including that of bank clerk. After moving to Austin, Texas, in 1882, he married.

In 1884 he started a humorous weekly The Rolling Stone. When the weekly failed, he joined the Houston Post as a reporter and columnist. In 1897 he was convicted of embezzling money, although there has been much debate over his actual guilt. In 1898 he entered a penitentiary at Columbus, Ohio.

While in prison O. Henry started to write short stories to earn money to support his daughter Margaret. His first work, "Whistling Dick's Christmas Stocking" (1899), appeared in McClure's Magazine. After doing three years of the five years sentence, Porter emerged from the prison in 1901 and changed his name to O. Henry.

O. Henry moved to New York City in 1902 and from December 1903 to January 1906 he wrote a story a week for the New York World, also publishing in other magazines. Henry's first collection, Cabbages And Kings appeared in 1904. The second, The Four Million, was published two years later and included his well-known stories "The Gift of the Magi" and "The Furnished Room". The Trimmed Lamp (1907) included "The Last Leaf". Henry's best known work is perhaps the much anthologized "The Ransom of Red Chief", included in the collection Whirligigs (1910). The Heart Of The West (1907) presented tales of the Texas range. O. Henry published 10 collections and over 600 short stories during his lifetime.

O. Henry's last years were shadowed by alcoholism, ill health, and financial problems. He married Sara Lindsay Coleman in 1907, but the marriage was not happy, and they separated a year later. O. Henry died of cirrhosis of the liver on June 5, 1910, in New York. Three more collections, Sixes And Sevens (1911), Rolling Stones (1912) and Waifs And Strays (1917), appeared posthumously.

Schools in England

English educational system is quite different from what we have in Russia. It is class-divided. There some state schools and some private ones. State schools are infant, junior or secondary. British boys and girls begin to go to school at the age of 5. They draw pictures, sing songs, listen to the stories and tales. British children begin to read and write when they enter the infant schools. Young children are divided into two groups, according to their mental abilities. Children leave infant schools when they are 7. Then they go to study at junior schools where they learn to write, read and do mathematics. Their school subjects are History, English, Geography, Arithmetics, Arts, Music, Swimming and some others. When the pupils enter the junior schools they pass abilities test. According to the results of the test and thus their intellectual potential they are divided into three groups. Boys and girls spend four years studying at junior schools. Then they pass examinations again and enter the secondary schools. There different types of secondary schools in Britain. They are: grammar schools, modern schools and comprehensive schools. English boys and girls attend secondary schools from 11 till 16. They don't go to schools on Saturdays and Sundays. In the modern schools pupils do not learn foreign languages. In grammar schools pupils receive better theoretical education. And the other school type is comprehensive schools. Almost all secondary pupils ( around 90 per cent ) go there. There are also private schools in England. Boys and girls do not study together there. It is common that aristocracy sons go to these schools and parents pay a lot of money for their education. These schools are called public. Independent and preparatory schools are private ones too. They prepare children for public schools and take money for the training. The teachers of the private schools can pay more attention to each of the pupils personally. It is possible to enter the best English universities after leaving public schools. After finishing grammar schools pupils have good knowledge and may continue studying in colleges and universities. English pupils wear school uniform. It is one of the oldest country's traditions. A boy's uniform includes a school cap, a tie and a blazer. A girl's uniform consists of a hat, a coat, a skirt and a blouse. The uniforms vary from school to school. Usually, they are dark.

Higher education

Students normally enter University from 18 onwards and study for an Academic Degree. Apart from a single private university, all undergraduate education is largely state financed (with tuition fees set at a maximum index-linked £3,225 per year, repayable after graduation contingent on attaining a certain level of income, and with the state paying all fees for students from the poorest backgrounds), and UK students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance. The state does not control syllabuses, but it does influence admission procedures. Unlike most degrees, the state still has control over teacher training courses, and uses Ofsted inspectors to maintain standards.[26]

The typical first degree offered at British universities is the Bachelor's degree (typically three years). Many institutions now offer an undergraduate Master's degree as a first degree, typically lasting four years. During a first degree students are known as undergraduates. The difference in fees between undergraduate and traditional postgraduate Master's degrees (and the possibility of securing LEA funding for the former) makes taking an undergraduate Master's degree as a first degree a more attractive option, although the novelty of undergraduate Master's degrees means that the relative educational merit of the two is currently unclear.

Some universities offer a vocationally-based Foundation degree, typically two years in length for those students who hope to continue to take a first degree but wish to remain in employment.

Postgraduate education

Students who have completed a first degree are eligible to undertake a postgraduate degree, which includes:

Master's degree (typically taken in one year)

Doctorate degree (typically taken in three years)

Postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the State, and so admission is in practice highly competitive.

The American system of school education differs from the systems in other countries. There are state public schools, private elementary schools and private secondary schools. Public schools are free and private schools are fee-paying. Each state has its own system of public schools.

Elementary education begins at the age of six or seven, when a child goes to the first grade (form). At the age of sixteen schoolchildren leave the elementary school and may continue their education at one of the secondary schools or high schools, as they call them. The programme of studies in the elementary school includes English, Arithmetic, Geography, History of the USA, Natural sciences and, besides, Physical Training, Singing, Drawing, wood or metal work, etc. Sometimes they learn a foreign language and general history.

Besides giving general education some high schools teach subjects useful to those who hope to find jobs in industry and agriculture or who wants to enter colleges or universities. After graduating from secondary schools a growing number of Americans go on to higher education.

The students do not take the same courses. During the first two years they follow a basic programme. It means that every student must select at least one course from each of the basic fields of study: English, Natural sciences, Modern languages, History or Physical education. After the first two years every student can select subjects according to his professional interest.

The National Government gives no direct financial aid to the institutions of higher education. Students must pay a tuition fee. This creates a finantial hardship for some people. Many of the students have to work to pay their expenses.

Americans place a high value on education. That's why Kennedy said, "Our progress as a nation can be no swifter than our progress in education".

The general pattern of education in the USA is an eight-year elementary school, followed by a four-year high school. This has been called 8—4 plan organization. It is proceeded, in many localities, by nursery schools and kindergartens. It is followed by a four-year college and professional schools. This traditional pattern, however, has been varied in many different ways. The 6—3— 3 plan consists of a six-year elementary school, a three-year junior high school, and a three-year senior high school. Another variation is a 6—6 plan organization, with a six-year elementary school followed by a six-year secondary school.American education provides a program for children, beginning at the age of 6 and continuing up to the age of 16 in some of the states, and to 18 in others. The elementary school in the United States is generally considered to include the first six or eight grades of the common-school system, depending upon the organization that has been accepted for the secondary school. It has been called the “grade school” or the “grammar school”.

There is no single governmental agency to prescribe for the American school system, different types of organization and of curriculum are tried out. The length of the school year varies among the states. Wide variation exists also in the length of the school day. A common practice is to have school in session from 9:00 to 12:00 in the morning and from 1:00 to 3:30 in the afternoon, Monday through Friday. The school day for the lower grades is often from 30 minutes to an hour shorter. Most schools require some homework to be done by elementary pupils. Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning

 

Elementary Schools, High Schools and Institutions of Higher Learning

There are eight years of elementary schooling. The elementary school is followed by four years of secondary school, or high school. Often the last two years of elementary and the first years of secondary school are combined into a junior high school. The school year is nine months in length, beginning early in September and sometimes a shorter one in spring. There are slight variations from place to place. Students enter the first grade at the age of six and attendance is compulsory in most states until the age of sixteen or until the student has finished the eighth grade. The elementary schools tend to be small. The high schools are generally larger and accommodate pupils from four or five elementary schools. A small town generally has several elementary schools and one high school. In some rural communities the one-room country school house still exists. Here may be found from five to twenty-five pupils in grades one through eight, all taught by the same teacher. Admission to the American high school is automatic on completion of the elementary school. During the four-year high school program the student studies four or five major subjects per year, and classes in each of these subjects meet for an hour a day, five days a week. In addition, the student usually has classes in physical education, music, and art several times a week. If he fails a course, he repeats only that course and not the work of the entire year. Students must complete a certain number of courses in order to receive a diploma, or a certificate of graduation. Institutions of higher learning supported by public funds are not absolutely free. The state colleges and universities charge a fee for tuition or registration. This fee is higher for those who come from outside the state. Working one’s way through college is commonplace. Usually there is no admission examination required by a state university for those who have finished high school within the state. Sometimes a certain pattern of high school studies is necessary, however, and some state universities require a certain scholastic average, or average of high school grades. Private colleges and universities, especially the larger, well-known ones such as Harvard, Princeton, and Yale, have rigid scholastic requirements for entrance, including an examination. It usually takes four years to meet the requirements for a Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science degree.A Master of Arts or Master of Science degree may be obtained in one or two additional years.The highest academic degree is the Doctor of Philosophy.It may take any number of years to complete the original research work necessary to obtain this degree.

Higher Education Institutions

It has become common for the college program to be divided into broad fields,such as languages and literature,the social sciences,the sciences and mathematics, and the fine arts.Many colleges require all freshmen and sophomores to take one or two full-year courses in each of three fields.Certain Courses,such as English or history,may be required for all,with some election permitted in the other fields. Higher educational institutions usually are governed by a board of regents or a board of trustees. The executive head of a college or a university is usually called the president. The various colleges or schools which take up a university are headed by deans. Within a school or college there may be departments according to subject matter fields, each of which may be headed by a professor who is designated as department head or chairman. Other members of the faculty hold academic ranks, such as instructor, assistant professor, associate professor, and professor. Graduate students who give some part-time service may be designated as graduate assistants or fellows. Professional education in fields such as agriculture, dentistry, law, engineering, medicine, pharmacy, teaching, etc. is pursued in professional schools which may be part of a university or may be separate institutions which confine their instruction to a single profession. Often two, three, or four years of pre-professional liberal arts education are required before admission to a professional school. Three to five years of specialized training lead to professional degrees such as Doctor of Medicine, Bachelor of Law, etc.

Private and State Colleges and Universities

Harvard College was established in 1636, with the principal purpose of providing a literate ministry1 for colonial churches. It was a small institution, enrolling only 20 students in 1642 and 60 in 1660. It soon became more than a theological training school2 and established itself as a liberal arts college. The next institution of higher learning established in the American colonies was the College of William and Mary, which opened in 1693 at Williamsburg, Virginia. Other colleges were founded in the next century, but all of them remained small schools for long periods. Students entered at the age of 14 and remained until they were 18, and the curriculum, while rigidly academic and classic was by modern standards rather secondary in nature. Private colleges and universities were established in various states. The first state university was the University of Virginia, founded in 1819. Some state universities have large endowment funds1 which provide a substantial portion of their support. Other sources of income are student fees, gifts and endowments. In general, higher education in the USA may be divided into two broad fields: liberal arts and professional. Each of these fields may be further subdivided into undergraduate and graduate levels. The liberal arts program, on the undergraduate level, may be a two-year junior college course, or a four-year course leading to a degree of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science. The four-year course is usually subdivided into a lower division (which may be called the junior college), consisting of the two first years, and the upper division, which is the last two years. The first two years continue the general education and specialization begins in the third year.

Teaching Profession in the USA

Requirements for teachers’ certificate vary among 50 states. Usually the state department of education, or a state certification board, issues certificates which permit teachers to be employed within the state. Forty-four of the 50 states require at least the completion of a four-year course, with the bachelor’s degree, as a minimum for high school teaching: the tendency to require a fifth year beyond the bachelor’s degree is increasing. Graduation from a two-year normal school or at least two years of college education is the minimum requirement for elementary teaching in 36 states; others demand the completion of a four-year course and the bachelor’s degree. Because of the decentralization of school control in the USA teachers are employed by local districts rather than by the national government. The American teacher does not have the absolute security of tenure which the French or Australian teacher enjoys. A higher proportion of the teaching force are women than in some other countries. The teacher-training institutions have not been able to provide sufficient numbers of fully trained teachers to replace those retiring and dropping out of the profession and at the same time to meet the requirements for new classes each year. The problem of recruiting and suply of teachers remains a serious one. In general the problem of shortage of teachers has not been met by lowering certification standards.

Ecological problems

The Earth is the only planet in the solar system where there is life. If you look down at the Earth from a plane you will see how wonderful our planet is. You will see blue seas and oceans, rivers and lakes, high snow-capped mountains, green forests and fields. For centuries man lived in harmony with nature until industrialization brought human society into conflict with the natural environment. Today, the contradictions between man and nature have acquired a dramatic character. With the development of civilization man’s interference in nature has increased. Every year the world’s industry pollutes the atmosphere with millions of tons of dust and other harmful substances. The seas and rivers are poisoned with industrial waste, chemical and sewage discharge. People who live in big cities are badly affected by harmful discharge from plants and city transport and by the increasing noise level which is as bad for human health as lack of fresh air and clean water.

Among the most urgent problems are the ozone layer, acid rains, global warming, toxic pollution of atmosphere, disappearance of forests, contamination of underground waters by chemical elements, destruction of soil in some areas, threat to some flora and fauna representatives, etc.

One of the most important pollution problems is the oceans. Many ships sail in the ocean water- fishing ships, some ships carrying people, some carrying oil. If a ship loses some of the oil in the water, or waste from the ships in put into the ocean, the water becomes dirty. Many sea birds die because of the polluted water. Many fish are dying in the sea, others are getting contaminated. Fishermen catch contaminated fish which may be sold in markets, and people may get sick from eating them. Lakes and rivers are becoming polluted, too. Some beaches are dangerous for swimming.

Another important problem is air pollution. Cars and factories pollute the air we use. Their fume also destroys the ozone layer which protects the Earth from the dangerous light of the Sun. Aerosols create large “holes” in the ozone layer round the Earth. Burning coal and oil leads to global warming which may bring about a change in the world’s climate.

The other problem is that our forests are dying from acid rains. Deforestation, especially destruction of tropical forests, affects the balance of nature in many ways. It kills animals, changes the climate and ecosystem in the world.

A person can do some damage to the environment but the greater part of pollution certainly comes from industry. Modern industry production is the main threat to nature.

There are a lot of places on our planet that need immediate help. Our country is not exception. The nuclear accident at Chernobyl, which took place on April 26, 1986., has seriously aggravated the ecological situation in Belarus. That catastrophe can be considered as the largest disaster of the 20^th century. As the result of that accident 18% of territories of our republic were contaminated by radioactive elements. The agriculture of our country suffered great losses. More than 20% of the population has also suffered. A death rate among children has increased considerably. The wide researches are carried out, but health state of the people living in polluted areas, is worsened. The level of thyroid gland cancer has increased, the immunity of children and women is weakened, many diseases appear out only a few years later. Everyone understands that this catastrophe is a threat to health of our nation, and though years have already passed, the results will be shown on the future generations.

I’d like to say a few words about animals in danger of extinction. The blue whale is the largest animal which has ever lived. Once there were over 200000 of these creatures living in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Since the seventeenth century they have been hunted for their oil and meat. In fact, so many of them were killed that by 1963 their population had been reduced to just 1000. Today it is even less that that. The African elephant is the world’s largest land animal. Today there are fewer than one million of these animals left. Even though they are now protected, they are still being hunted because of their tusks, which are used to make ornaments and jewellery. There is only one way to save wild animals and wild habitats –conservation. That means protecting animals in danger by law, opening more national parks, building fewer new roads, planting more new forests, cutting pollution. It this doesn’t happen, many wild animals will soon have just one habitat- the Zoo.

Ecological problems have no borders. European states solve these problems together: the necessary measures are taken, congresses and conferences on these questions are organized, and these questions have already the reflection in the legislation of many countries.

The activity of many public organizations is directed to protect environment. One of the most known organizations is “Greenpeace”, whose purpose is prevention of environment degradation. This organization was founded in 1971 by the activists from the USA and Canada and it has representations in 25 countries of the world. “Greanpeace” acts against nuclear tests, radiating threat, pollution of the environment by waste industrial products, to protect the animal world, etc. This organization influences public opinion through mass media, under its aegis manifestations and protest actions are carried solutions for concrete ecological problems.

For example, the “Greenpeace” sent its boats to protect whales, and today commercial whaling is banned. In the North Sea Greenpeace swimmers turned back dump ships carrying chemical waste, and a new laws to protect the North Sea have been considered.

When I look around I realize that not all people understand the importance of nature protection. On fine summer days a lot of people go out of town. They have picnics on the shores of lakes and the banks of rivers or on beautiful forest glades and they often leave behind a lot of rubbish- plastic bags and bottles, tins and paper. It makes me feel sad when I see people returning to town with huge bunches of forest or meadow flowers. Many of these plants are included into the Red Book which contains the names of rare plants and animals. Some of them have become extinct and others are on the verge of disappearing. If we don’t realize that we are all responsible for what’s happening around us we will never feel secure about the future of the world we live in.

What can be done to protect nature? I believe that environment disasters can be avoided if people broaden ecological education and every person understands that the beauty of nature is extremely fragile and people must obey the unwritten laws of nature. Governments must be prepared to take action against pollution. Air pollution could be reduced if plants and factories were made to fit effective filters on chimneys and car exhausts. Green zones around big cities must be protected and extended. Natural resources should be used economically because their stocks are not unlimited.

The ecology is a science studying interaction of organisms among themselves and an environment.

London

When a man is tired of London? He is tired of life; for there is in London all that life can afford. Samuel Johnson. Today, more than 200 years later, Johnson's words still ring true. There are few places that offer such a variety of sights, entertainments, educational and business opportunities, world- famous museums and theatres, and superb shopping. London draws people from all over the world. Some come to study, to work or on holiday. London is naturally a very English city, yet it is the least typical of Britain as it is very cosmopolitan, containing goods, food and entertainment, as well as people, from many countries of the world. London spreads its influence over much of the southern areas of England; it gives work to millions of people who live not only in the inner-city areas, but in surrounding districts. Some people even commute over 100 miles (over 150 km) every day to work in London. There is much in London Which fascinates visitors and inspires the affection of Londoners: the splendor of the royal palaces and the Houses of Parliament, the Dignity of St. Paul's Cathedral and many monuments, the fine architecture of numerous historic buildings, and the beautiful parks. London shows examples of Buildings that express all the different areas of its history, it manages in a unique way to reflect it's past and at the same time to fulfil the functions of a modern city with its commercialism and bustle London is the capital of Great Britain. It is a political, economic and commercial center. It is one of the most enjoyable cities. Visited by millions of tourists, the city offers them an astonishing variety of scenes. London is one of the largest cities in the world and its population is about 9 million. London is situated on the river Themes. The city is very old. It has more than 20 centuries old history. Traditionally the city is divided into several parts: the City, the Westminster, the West End and the East End. The City of London today is the financial powerhouse of the country and one of the chief commercial centers of the western world. The City has its own Lord Mayor, its own government and its own police force. Here the medieval buildings stand side by side with modern steel and glass high-rise office blocks. The territory of the City of just over one square mile contains several banks, including the Bank of England, the Stock Exchange and offices of many financial companies. The Westminster is the aristocratic, official part of London. It includes Buckingham Palace where the Queen lives and the House of Parliament stretching for nearly 1000 feet along the north bank of the Themes. Westminster Abbey is a national shrine where the kings and queens are crowned and famous people buried. Chaucer, Tennyson, Newton, Dickens, Hardy, Kipling were buried in Westminster Abbey. The House of Parliament called officially the Palace of Westminster, were formerly a palace for kings and queens. The Palace was used both as used as a royal residence and as a parliament house until the 16th century. In the course of the 16th when the royal family moved to the new palace within half of mile Whitehall Palace, the Westminster Palace was occupied by the Parliament and became its permanent home. The Parliament of the United Great Britain and Northern Ireland consists of just over 1000 members of the different grades of nobility. In the House of comments, there are 635 members. The Clock Towers, with contains the hour bell, called "Big Ben" is known all over the world. The bell is named after Sir Benjamin Hall, the first Commissioner of Works. The Tower of London was built in the 11th century. It was one of the first and most impressive castles built after the Norman invasion of England in 1066. The Tower has been used as a royal palace, an observatory, an arsenal, a state prison and many famous and infamous people have been executed within its walls. It is now a museum. For many visitors the principal attraction is the Crown Jewels, the finest precious stones of the nation. A fine collection of armor is exhibited in the Keep. Trafalgar Square is the geographical center of London. It was named so to commemorate Nelson's Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.The monument in the middle of this square known as Nelson's Column is surmounted with the Statue of Nelson 16 feet high. The pedestal of the Column is decorated with the bas-reliefs representing Nelson's most famous victories. At the base of the column, there are four big lions. On the north side of the square are the National Gallery and the National Portrait Gallery. The National Gallery has an outstanding collection of finest arts from Britain, Italy, Denmark and other countries. Piccadilly Circus has become an important meeting point - for traffic as well as sightseers. At its heart is a bronze fountain topped by a figure of a winged archer, popularly known as Eros, the pagan god of love. The majority of London's places of entertainment are concentrated around Piccadilly Circus. This area is now famous for its theatres, clubs and shops. Whitehall is a street in central London running from Trafalgar Square to the Houses of Parliament and containing many important buildings and government offices: the Foreign and Commonwealth offices, the Treasury, Admiralty and Ministry of Defence. In the center of the roadway stands the Cenotaph, The memorial to the fallen of both world wars. The Prime Minister's residence at No. 10 Downing Street is directly connected to Whitehall. London is always full of life. The streets are crowded with traffic. High "double-decker" buses rise above the smaller and vans. The Parks. of London provide a welcome contrast to the great built-up areas. St. James's Park, Green Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington gardens are linked together. They form 313 hectares of open parkland in the heart of London.

New York

New York City isn't the capital of USA and it isn't the capital of New York State, but residents of the “Big Apple” considering their city the capital of the globe. It is because New York is the home of the United Nations and the largest investment market in the world. When first immigrants came to this land, they bought Manhattan Island for $24 from local Indians. Then they founded there a first colony and now when people in New York talking about New Yorkers they usually talk about people, who live on Manhattan. New York has five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island, and the Bronx. The Bronx is famous for a zoo, which is situated there. Manhattan is the center of New York City. Near 1 million people live here, but over than 5 million come here to work from all parts of the city every day. The main street, Broadway, is also here. And there are a lot of other famous streets which known nationwide. Wall Street is famous for finance. Madison Avenue means advertising, and Fifth Avenue is famous for world-class shopping. There is a famous crossing Times Square. It famous for Theatre district, there are more than thirty theaters there, and every evening they play their plays. Central Park is also there. There you can see people walking their dogs, having a rest or playing games. The Metropolitan Museum of Art is the most famous art museum in New York. It has great collection from all over the world. It's located in Central Park. There are a lot of famous neighborhoods on Manhattan. The Village is famous for some poets and writers, who wrote about it. SoHo is an enclave of artists. Harlem has a priceless musical heritage. And the China Town with its main street – Canal. Most of New York's skyscrapers are located on the island of Manhattan. There are such buildings as Art Deco Chrysler Building and there were twin towers of the World Trade Center. One of the famous building in the world is the Statue of Liberty. It was built in 1886. It was a present from the people of France. About 12 million immigrants passed through New York when they came to America. When you come to New York by sea the first thing, which you will see it is the Statue of Liberty, America's symbol of freedom!

New York.

New York is one of the largest cities in the world. Its population is over 11 million people. New York is an industrial and cultural centre of the country. Most business is centred in Manhattan Island. The whole area is very small, that's why the sky-scrapers were invented in New York and, especially, in Wall Street. Wall Street is a narrow street with big houses, but it is well known all over the world as the busiest street in the USA. People do business there. There are two more world-famous streets — Broadway and Fifth Avenue. Broadway is the centre of the theatres and night life. It is known as “The Great White Way” because of the electric signs which turn night into day.

It is the city that never goes to sleep. Buses and sub-way run all night. There are many drugstores and restaurants which never close their doors. There are cinemas with films that start at midnight. Fifth Avenue is the great shopping, hotel, and club avenue.

New York is the largest port in America. More than half the trade of the United States goes through this city.

There are many places of interest in New York. They are: the Statue of Liberty, the United Nations Building, Empire State Building, Columbia University, City Hall, New York Public Library and others. When you come to New York you see lots of cars, big and small, black and yellow, old and modem; you do not see any trees or flowers in the streets, but only cars. You'll see and hear advertisements everywhere. There is no getting away from them. Advertisements fill the newspapers and cover the walls, they are on menu-cards and match-boxes, they are shouted through loud speakers and shown in the cinemas.

From the History of GB

The conquest of England by the Normans began in 1066 with the Battle of Hastings where the English fought against the Normans. The conquest was completed in 1071. Who were the Normans who conquered England? Some 150 years before the conquest of England they came to a part of France, opposite England, a part that we call Normandy. There they adopted the Christian faith, the French language and the Roman law. So they became French. The Normans brought to England the French language. After the Norman Conquest there were 3 languages in England. There was Latin, the language of church and the language, in which all learned men wrote and spoke. There was French, the language, which kings and nobles spoke. And finally, there was the English language, which remained the language of the masses of the people. The role of the Norman Conquest was great for the development of feudalism and monarchy in Britain.

GREAT BRITAIN

The official name of this country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is divided into four parts: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland. The British Isles are group of islands lying off the north -west coast of the continent of Europe. England, Wales and Scotland are in Great Britain, Northern Ireland is situated in the north-easten part of Ireland. There are no high mountains, no very long rivers,no great forest in U.K. The climate of the British Isles is not very cold in winter and never hot in summer. The population of the U.K. is almost fifty six million. Britain is an industrial country. A lot of things such as clothes, food, planes, cars and many others are made in U.K. In the U.K. there are a lot of cattle-farms. The U.K. is a parlamentary manarchy. Great Britain is a capitalist country.

Great Britain

"Great Britain" has several different names. Some people say "Britain", or "the United Kingdom", or just "UK". There are four different countries in the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Altogether more than 56 million people live in Britain, many of them in big industrial cities like London, Liverpool and Manchester, but people are often surprised by how much of Britain is open country, with lonely hills and woods, quiet rivers, lakes and farmlands. Many people think that the weather is cold and wet in Britain all the year round. But it isn't! True, it sometimes rains and even snows for days and days, but every year there are weeks of beautiful sunny weather then the British take off their sweaters and go out to sunbathe. Britain is only a small country, but every part is different. Scotland is a land of mountains, lakes and romantic castles. The winters are cold, with plenty of snow, but the summers are often warm and sunny. Most farmers keep sheep, and they're many small factories, which make fine sweaters from their wool. In some parts of Scotland, there are very few people. Deer live in the hills, and the rivers are full of salmon. But Glasgow and Edinburgh are both large and busy, with all that is good (and bad) in modern cities. Northern Ireland has it problems, but it has beauty, too. In the warm, wet climate, the grass grows a brilliant green, and much of the land is farming country. Belfast is a large industrial city with many fine buildings and big port from which ships come and go to Scotland and England. But Belfast has had many difficulty years, and it is not the busy place it once was. A hundred years ago the north of England was industrial heart of the country. From the factories came cloth, wool, machines, engines and china. The old factories came have gone now and the workers have to look for jobs in the new "high-tech" industries. Outside the towns, much of this part of England is beautiful countryside, with green hills, lakes and sandy beaches. Fishing is still a big industry in the North East, and every night (except Sunday) the fishing boats go out to sea. The centre of England (the "Midlands") is also an important industrial area, especially near the huge cities of Coventry and Birmingham, the centre of the car industry. But everyone, even in the heart of the modern city, there are buildings from older Britain - cathedrals, castles, and houses built hundred years ago. Wales is a special place, a country of high mountains and pretty valleys. But Wales has plenty of industry, too, with many factories and coal mines. The west of England is rich farming country. It produces milk, cream, butter, cheese and apples, which go to make cider, a popular drink. In the villages, country people often grow their own fruit, vegetables and flowers. Some areas of Britain are very crowded. Around Manchester, in north west England, and Glasgow, in Scotland, are large city areas of houses and factories. The south east of England, too, has many towns and cities, including London, the giant capital. But quiet near London there are still some quiet villages and peaceful farms. Britain is an island, of course, and you are never far from the sea. Some of the coast, especially in the west, is wild and rocky, with small, sandy beaches, and romantic old harbours. Other parts are industrial. The East Coast of Scotland, for example, is busy with oil rings and fishing boats. The most popular beaches are near the many holiday towns on the south coast, where the weather is usually warmer. It is here that Londoners come to relax.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on two large islands called the British Isles. The larger island is Great Britain, which consists of three parts: England, Scotland and Wales. The smaller island is Ireland and there are about five thousand small islands. The country's shores are washed by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Irish Sea. The English channel separate Great Britain from the continent. The total area of the U.K. is 244.00 square kilometers with a population of 56 million. It is one of the most populated countries in the world. The average density of population is very high: about 220 people per square kilometer. The greater part of the population is urban. About 80 percent of people live in numerous towns and cities. More then seven million people live in London area. Very often the inhabitants of The United Kingdom and Northern Ireland are called English. The surface of the British Isles varies very mach. There are many mountains in Scotland, Wales and northwest of England but they are not very high. Ben Nevis in Scotland is the highest mountain. The northern part of Scotland is mountainous and is called the Highlands. Scotland is also famous for its beautiful lakes, which are called Lochs. The mountains in G.B. are not very high. There are many rivers in G.B., but they are not very long. The Themes is the deepest, the longest and the most important river in England. The climate of G.B. is mild. It is not very cold in winter and hot in summer. The average temperature in January is about 5C above zero. February is the coldest month in the year. The summers are cool and rainy. July is the warmest month. There is much rain and flog in autumn and winter. October is the rainiest month in the year.

USA

1. General

The United States of America was formed by emigrants in 1382. The USA makes up of 62 states. Washington, the capital of the United States is situated on the Rotomac River in the District of Columbia. The district is a piece of land which doesn't belong to any state but to all the states. All these states are sovereignty.

2. Geographical position and physical features:

The USA occupy a large territory and are situated in the central and southern part of North America. The USA is washed by the Atlantic ocean in the east and by the Pacific ocean in the west. In the north, the USA has borders on Canada and in the south on Mexico. The USA is divided into three areas: Eastern area is a highland, central area is a plain and Western area is mountains including the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. There are five great lakes in the northern part of the USA. There are: Huron, Michigan, Supireo, Ontario and Erie. They are connected by fast rivers. There is the most famous to the whole world fall called Niagara Fall. Mississippi together with its tributary Missouri is the longest river in the world.

3. Climate:

Mountain ranges cross the country from north to south and don't protect it against cold air from the north and warm one from the south. The USA has a continental climate.

4. National Economy.

The USA is a highly developed industrial country. Large reserves of oil, coal, iron and other minerals are solid base of development of Americans industry. Heavy industry prevails in USA, including such branches as the mining, metallurgical, engineering, chemical and high-tech industries. USA has also well-developed light industry which includes textile, tanning and footwear industries. The food industry is well developed too. Both animal husbandry and farming takes big place in the economy of the USA.

5. Political system

Under the Constitution, the federal government is divided into three branches. The Congress is vested with the legislative power and made up of two houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 435 members in the House of Representatives and 100 senators. Each state elects two members of the Senate. The executive branch is headed by the President, who proposes bills to Congress, serves as commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. The President is chosen in nation-wide elections every 4 years. The second person in executive branch is vice President. The vice President, elected from the same political party as the President The judicial branch consists of Federal District Courts, 11 Federal Courts and the Supreme Court. Federal judges are appointed by the President. Federal courts decide cases involving federal law, conflicts between citizens of different states. Constitution is the most important document in the USA. Constitution has been amended 26 times. The Bill of Rights guarantees individual liberties: freedom of speech, religion and so on.