2 Read the text and check your answers.

Skyscraper construction

Skyscrapers start with a very large hole in the ground which will contain the foundations, several floors, and possibly even a metro or subway station. The type of foundations depend on the nature of the ground. Usually they are made by drilling narrow, deep holes and filling them with reinforced concrete to form piles. Another method is to drive steel piles, as much as twenty metres in length, into the ground. A thick raft of concrete is laid on top of the piles.

Vertical steel columns are bolted to the foundations. Each column rests on a platform of steel to spread the load. Steel girders are fixed horizontally from column to column by Steel Erectors to form a strong framework. Metal decking is laid across the girders and filled with lightweight liquid concrete which is pumped up from the ground. When it sets, it forms the floors.

Ducts are installed below the floors to carry all services: electricity, water, drains. All exposed metalwork is fireproofed. If a fire happens, it is important that the structure can withstand high temperatures without buckling.

The same process is repeated as the building rises. In some construction methods, entire floors are built at ground level and hoisted into position by cranes.

The outside of the building is covered in cladding. This consists of prefabricated panels of materials such as stainless steel, aluminium, and glass.

70 Unit 9

The world's first skyscraper was the Home Insurance building, Chicago, built in 1885. It was only ten storeys high.

• Language spot

Safety signs and safety advice

• Safety signs are found on construction sites.

• Safety signs give direct commands to the reader: No smoking. Do not smoke here. You must not smoke here. Wear a safety helmet. Safety helmets must be worn.

» Go to Grammar reference p.119

1 Match the safety signs to their meanings.

1

2 3 4 5

6

a Eye protection must be worn.

b In the event of fire do not use this lift.

с Ear protectors must be worn in this area.

d Protective footwear must be worn in this area.

e High-visibility clothing must be worn in this area.

f No admittance.

2 Work in pairs. Take turns to explain the signs in 1 to a trainee.

EXAMPLE

Sign 5 This means 'No admittance'. You mustn't go in there.

More general safety advice is given in handbooks on safety and on safety training programmes: Don't wear flammable clothing where there may be open flames.

Before operating an unfamiliar machine, check the guards.

We use always and never to strengthen safety advice: Check the guards before using an unfamiliar machine. Always check the guards before using an unfamiliar machine.

Don't use an unfamiliar machine without checking the guards.

Never use an unfamiliar machine without checking the guards.

» Go to Grammar reference p.119

3 Rewrite the examples of safety advice using always or never.

EXAMPLE

Don't use defective tools. Never use defective tools.

1. Make sure a machine has stopped before removing the guards.

2. Do not use mobile phones in busy working areas.

3. Wear eye protection when using grinders.

4. Do not smoke near flammable substances.

5. Wear a hard hat when work is going on overhead.

6. Do not operate chain saws without ear protection.

7. Make sure the mains supply is disconnected before working on electrical equipment.

8. Store chemicals in a lockable room or container.