МЕТ_1к_1ч

__The computer can be continually upgraded and advanced through the development of technology, while the human brain currently cannot be upgraded and can only be strengthened through nutrition and brain exercises. Currently, however, the brain is capable of performing a variety of tasks automatically such as regulating breathing, heartbeat, body temperature and interpreting sensory data while censoring unimportant information. The brain is also able to intuitively adapt to different settings. For instance, an individual can completely shift his tone and wording when moving from a formal to an informal situation.

Charles Pearson

Unit 4

HISTORY OF INTELLIGENCE TESTING

The first intelligence tests were created already in the 19th century, but they measured general knowledge rather than intelligence as it is understood today. French psychologist Alfred Binet is regarded as the author of the first professional IQ test. In 1905, Theodor Simon and he created a set of tests aiming to research children’s intellectual development. The tasks were tailored to different age groups. Binet and Simon introduced the notion of a mental age. A ten-year-old child who managed to correctly solve tasks dedicated to a year older age group was in fact eleven in terms of his or her mental age.

A few years later, a German scientist, William Stern, slightly improved the

Binet’s IQ tests and introduced a new term to the world of science – intelligence quotient (IQ in short). In order to calculate it, one should use the following formula: divide a person’s mental age by his or her age and multiply the result by

100 in order to avoid troublesome fractions. In this way, a ten-year-old child with the intellect of an eleven year old would have the IQ of 110, in accordance with the (11/10)*100 formula.

Binet’s intelligence tests were useful when researching children, but did not make it possible to examine adults’ intelligence. It resulted from the fact that the concept of a mental age is useless for adults, as they do not develop mentally as fast as children. This process stops already at the age of 16. An American psychologist, David Wechsler, decided to overcome this obstacle and in 1939 devised his own IQ test based on totally different assumptions. He found out that a distribution of intelligence in the population had features of the normal distribution (known as the Gaussian curve). An average intelligence quotient is the most popular, while the number of people with high or low intelligence changes in an inversely proportional manner to the diversion of their IQ levels from the norm.

In the Wechsler scale, the score of 100 is regarded as an average one. Results below 85 mean low intelligence. People with an over-average intelligence level attain scores between 115 and 130. People with high intelligence reach scores between 131 and 145, while geniuses − above 146. In order to become a member

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of Mensa, i.e. an organization gathering the most intelligent 2% of the population, one should present an intelligence quotient of at least 130.

Unit 5

NIKOLA TESLA

THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD

Nikola Tesla symbolizes a unifying force and inspiration for all nations in the name of peace and science.

Tesla studied at the Realschule, Karlstadt in 1873, the Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria and the University of Prague. At first, he intended to specialize in physics and mathematics, but soon he became fascinated with electricity. He began his career as an electrical engineer with a telephone company in Budapest in 1881. It was there, as Tesla was walking with a friend through the city park that the elusive solution to the rotating magnetic field flashed through his mind. With a stick, he drew a diagram in the sand explaining to his friend the principle of the induction motor. Before going to America, Tesla joined Continental Edison Company in Paris where he designed dynamos. While in Strassbourg in 1883, he privately built a prototype of the induction motor and ran it successfully. Unable to interest anyone in Europe in promoting this radical device, Tesla accepted an offer to work for Thomas Edison in New York. His childhood dream was to come to America to harness the power of Niagara Falls.

Young Nikola Tesla came to the United States in 1884 with an introduction letter from Charles Batchelor to Thomas Edison: "I know two great men," wrote Batchelor, "one is you and the other is this young man." Tesla spent the next 59 years of his productive life living in New York. Tesla set about improving

Edison’s line of dynamos while working in Edison’s lab in New Jersey. It was here that his divergence of opinion with Edison over direct current versus alternating current began. This disagreement climaxed in the war of the currents as Edison fought a losing battle to protect his investment in direct current equipment and facilities.

Tesla pointed out the inefficiency of Edison’s direct current electrical powerhouses that have been built up and down the Atlantic seaboard. The secret, he felt, lay in the use of alternating current, because to him all energies were cyclic. Why not build generators that would send electrical energy along distribution lines first one way, than another, in multiple waves using the polyphase principle?

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Unit 6

PRIMORDIAL SOUP

Go back far enough in time, and you eventually have to explain how the chemicals of life − especially proteins and nucleic acids − formed in Earth's primordial environment.

In 1929, biochemists John Haldane and Aleksander Oparin hypothesized independently that Earth's early atmosphere lacked free oxygen. In this harsh environment, they suggested, organic compounds could form from simple molecules if they were stimulated by a strong source of energy, either ultraviolet radiation or lightning. Haldane added that the oceans would have been a "primitive soup" of these organic compounds.

U.S. chemists Harold C. Urey and Stanley Miller set out to test the OparinHaldane hypothesis in 1953. They reproduced the early atmosphere of Earth by creating a carefully controlled, closed system. The ocean was a warmed flask of water. As water vapour rose from the water and collected in another chamber, Urey and Miller introduced hydrogen, methane and ammonia to simulate the oxygenfree atmosphere. Then they discharged sparks, representing lightning, into the mixture of gases. Finally, a condenser cooled the gases into a liquid they collected for analysis.

After a week, Urey and Miller had astonishing results: organic compounds were abundant in the cooled liquid. Most notably, Miller found several amino acids, including glycine, alanine and glutamic acid. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which themselves are the key ingredients of both cellular structures and cellular enzymes responsible for important chemical reactions. Urey and Miller concluded that organic molecules could form in an oxygen-free atmosphere and that the simplest of living things might not be far behind.

NASA INVENTIONS YOU MIGHT USE EVERY DAY

ADJUSTABLE SMOKE DETECTOR

Skylab was the first U.S. space station, and the astronauts would need to know if a fire had started or if noxious gases were loose in the vehicle. Teaming up with Honeywell Corporation, NASA invented the first adjustable smoke detector with different sensitivity levels to prevent false alarms. The first smoke detector to hit the consumer market is called the ionization smoke detector. That essentially means that it uses a radioactive element called americium-241 to spot smoke or harmful gasses. When clean air particles of oxygen and nitrogen move through smoke detectors, the americium-241 ionizes them, which creates an electrical current. If foreign smoke particles enter the smoke detector, it disrupts that interaction, triggering the alarm.

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CORDLESS TOOLS

Although Black & Decker had already invented the first battery-powered tools in 1961, the NASA-related research helped refine the technology that led to lightweight, cordless medical instruments, hand-held vacuum cleaners and other tools. In the mid-1960s, to prepare for the Apollo missions to the moon, NASA needed a tool that astronauts could use to obtain samples of rocks and soil. The drill had to be lightweight, compact and powerful enough to dig deep into the surface of the moon. Since rigging up a cord to a drill in outer space would be a difficult feat, NASA and Black & Decker invented a battery-powered, magnetmotor drill. Working in the context of a limited space environment, Black & Decker developed a computer program for the tool that reduced the amount of power expended during use to maximize battery life.

Unit 7

MATHEMATICS

The word "mathematics"comes from the Greek "mathema" which means in ancient Greek "what one learns", "what one gets to know" also "study", "knowledge", "learning" and "science" and in modern Greek just "lesson".

In English until 1700 the term “mathematics” meant "astrology", "astronomy" rather than "mathematics" as it is now. Mathematics is the study of quantity, space, structure and change.

Through the use of abstraction and logical reasoning, maths developed from counting, calculation, measurement, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects. Practical maths has been a human activity for as far back as written records exist. The earliest uses of Maths were in trading, land measurement, painting. In addition to recognizing how to count physical objects, prehistoric people also knew how to count abstract quantities, like time – days, seasons, years. Elementary arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) naturally followed.

The systematic study of maths in its own right began with the Ancient Greek between 600 and 300 B.C.

Maths continued to develop, for example, in China in 300 B.C., in India in 100 A.D. and in the Muslim world in A.D. 800 until the Renaissance when mathematical innovations interacting with new scientific discoveries led to a rapid increase in the present day.

Mathematics is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural science engineering, medicine, and the social sciences.

Nowadays, all sciences suggest problems studied by maths and many problems arise within Maths itself. Often Maths inspired by one area proves useful in many areas. A distinction is often made between pure maths and applied Maths.

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However, pure Maths topics often turn out to have applications, e. g. number theory in cryptography and computer science.

Many mathematicians talk about the elegance of maths, its inner beauty. Simplicity and generality in Maths are valued.

Unit 8

HIP TO BE SQUARE: RUBIK'S CUBES AND SUDOKU

Magic squares may seem esoteric, but their cultural impact is evident whenever you open the newspaper or walk into a toy shop. The two most popular puzzles of recent years – Sudoku and the Rubik's Cube – are both consequences of a centuries-long preoccupation with them.

In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler, the greatest mathematician of his day, was devising ways to create magic squares. In order to do this he started looking at another type of square that could be used as a kind of template for producing magic squares.

Euler's new concept was a square in which every number, or symbol, would appear once and only once in each row and column. While these squares had been known about since at least a few centuries before, Euler was the first mathematician to analyse them systematically and he coined their name "Latin square".

He also invented the sister concept in which two Latin squares are superimposed on each other, and such that each cell in the grid is unique. This he called a "Graeco-Latin Square".

In 1782, Euler set the "36 officers problem", a frivolous puzzle that led to much deep academic work and discoveries. Can you make a 6x6 Graeco-Latin made up of six regiments of six officers each of different ranks so that no rank and regiment is repeated in any row or column? Only in 1901 was it proved that this was impossible.

Unlike magic squares, Latin and Graeco-Latin squares have found many uses and applications in non-mathematical settings, for example in cryptography and biological experiments, experimental design.

The best-known occurrence of Latin squares now, however, is in newspapers and puzzle books. Sudoku is a puzzle to complete a partially completed 9x9 Latin square that contains the digits one to nine in each column and row, with the added specification that the 3x3 sub-squares also contain the numbers from one to nine.

The previous puzzle craze to Sudoku was the Rubik's Cube, whose history can also be traced back to the magic square. In the mid-19th century in upstate New York, Noyes Palmer Chapman, an amateur puzzle enthusiast, made a physical model of a magic square such that the numbers from 1 to 16 were on small wooden squares that could be fit in a 4x4 box. He realised that if he left out one of the squares, it was possible to slide the other 15 squares around. This became known

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as the "15 Puzzle", which was an international fad in 1880 – and is the original sliding block puzzle, versions of which you can still find in toyshops.

In the 1970s Hungarian designer Ernö Rubik was trying to reinvent the 15 Puzzle in three dimensions when he came up with the idea of the Rubik's Cube.

From the magic square to Sudoku we seem to have always liked our puzzle crazes to come in squares – although this is a matter not for mathematicians, but for psychologists.

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