1) The principle of the categorical reference of a kernel word:

a) Substantival word groups (football match);

b) Verbal word groups (to love me);

c) Adjectival word groups (glad to hear);

d) Pronominal word groups (we all, those against);

e) Adverbial word groups(terribly well, 2hours later)

2) The character of syntactic relations:

a) Attributive (the substantival word groups are the leading group here) – a cup of tea, a new dress;

b) Objective (to run a factory)

c) Adverbial (to get up early)

3) The way of connection:

a) Agreement (it is the method of expressing syntactic relations which consists in making a subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinated (this day – these days, I go – she goes);

b) Government (consists in the use of a certain form of an adjunct required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of kernel itself). E.g. the use of the Objective case of personal pronouns and pronoun who when they are subordinated to a verb and follow a preposition.

c) Adjoinment - a dominant way of realizing syntactic relations in Engl (the most usual example of this connection is the relation between an adverb and a verb and another adverb. An adverb is subordinated to its head word without either agreeing with it or being governed by it – to run quickly, very nice)

4) Position of the kernel and adjunct

a) prepositive; b) postpositive.

18. Diachronic approaches to polysemy. Change of word meaning in the course of historical development.

Polysemy is the result of semantic shifts which are coursed by social and linguistic reasons when denotational or connotational meanings are changed metaphorically or metonymically. Polysemy is the result of extension, narrowing, elevation or degradation. Originally polysemy may be figurative. With times it has become trite language which is registered in dictionary.

Types of polysemy:

1) radiation (radial) – the meanings of polysemantic words are radii (House(building, opera, parlament))

2) chain (shows the order of meaning of each come into being)

House – people House – officers House – singers House- members of parliament

3) mixed polysemy (variation of both)

Polysemy is erased by context.

e.g. spring : 1.источник 2. прыгать

In the course of historical development word meaning may be changed.

e.g.game– 1. охота на зверя 2. любая охота 3. любая игра 4. футбол

Polysemy may lead to homonymy. The difference is that polysemy is represented by words of different meanings (one word – different meaning) and homonymy is represented by different words.

19. The category of negation in English

In English unlike Russian or Ukrainian one can’t use polynegative form. We have only single negation in English.

A particle not joins some verbs: to be, to have, shall, will can, may, must, ought, need, dare. Double negation is used to neutralize the negation. Confer: not unwise, not unhappy, не незадовільно, не неумный.

Negation can be general and partial. When the negation is before the predicate, it denies the whole utterance. When it is before another part of the sentence, it doesn’t influence the whole utterance: He does not want to go. – I started early so as not to miss the train. I told him not to go.1) word-sentences: No.;2) modal words: Of course not. Definitely not. Indeed not.;3) sentences-interjections: Nonsense. Pshew. Alas. Bosh. Fie.;4)intonationally: me go there?

20. General Characteristics of the English Sentence.

A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves to the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it.

The classification of simple sentences is based on 2 principles:

1/according to the purpose of the utterance

2/according t the structure/

According to the purpose of the utterance – 4 kinds of the sent.

The declarative sent. States a fact in the affirmative or negative form. Here the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation. It is necessary to remember that in Eng.sent. only one negation can take place.