Infrastructure Planning

• Travel within the Community

• Future Transport Systems

• Future Transportation Systems

• The Waterways

• Regulation

Part II. Presentation

Unit 1. Making your Presentation

NB!: There are three different stages in the completion of successful presentation: Preparation, giving your Presentation, Questions and Discussion.

The term Presentation can cover a range of different activities in a range of different settings. It may be a major political speech to millions of people, a sales presentation, or a talk by a colleague on a subject of interest. The aim of Presentation is a clear communication of information to an audience by a presenter. A good presenter has thought about the following questions: Who is the audience? What is the subject and aims of my presentation? What are the main points? What structure and order will these points have? What visual aids will I use? And what questions might I be asked?

Task 1.1. The following is a list of different steps that people go through when preparing a presentation. Read the steps (1 to 8) and decide in what order they could be done.

1. Prepare the visual aids.

2. Research the topic.

3. Practice giving the presentation to an audience - time how long it takes.

4. Decide on the main points of the presentation.

5. Put the main points into a logical and connected order.

6. Make notes to refer to in the presentation.

7. Decide on the structure of the presentation - Introduction, Body (the main points) and Conclusion.

8. Change the presentation in the light of suggestions.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

Task 1.2. Make a list of ail resources you can use to research the topic. Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

NB!: After you have researched your topic decide on how many main points you think you need in a presentation? It's not a good idea to include all the information you've researched or limit your presentation to one main point. A clear presentation which is easy for the audience to follow usually includes about main points which the speaker wants to make. There is usually a logical sequence which is suggested by the topic. Almost all presenters use notes to refer during the presentation. Nobody can remember all the points that they want to make, that's why a good set of notes will also help you to be less nervous.

Task 1.3. Look at the following main points about the production of orange juice and put them in the logical order for presentation.

1. transfer to the shops;

2. the growing and harvesting of the oranges;

3. sale;

4. juice extraction in the factory;

5. bottling;

6. transport to factory.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

NB!: Besides the use of visual aids to illustrate the points and ideas you want your audience to understand will help to reinforce the message, understanding, attract and hold the audience's attention.

Visual aids

Task 1.4. What aids can be used to illustrate presentations? Make a list of possible visual aids would include.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

Notes to presenters

1. Try to use landscape format where possible which is similar to the human vision. Avoid vertical slides and transparencies.

2. Use color wherever possible.

3. Put your organization's name (University's name) at the bottom corners of each slide and maybe your own name.

4. The first, should should have the name of your presentation, your name and possibly the conference name and date.

5. Do not use too many equations. The audience can always read them in the paper if necessary.

6. Have between 3-5 points per slide. More than 5 is too many and you should use a second slide.

7. Allow 2-3 minutes per slide and remember. To pause so the audience can read the whole slide. Do not block part of the slide or transparency (i.e. by standing in front of the projector or by design (if you wish to present parts of it later on),

8. Remember that a picture or graph is very informative. Check beforehand that your visual aids are of good quality and that they can be read from a distance.

9. Turn the slide and overhead projectors off if they are not being used for your presentation.

10 Use the pointer as much as possible and always try to face the audience as much as possible.

Creating a good impression

What you say is as important as the way you look in front of the audience. You would not be human if you were not nervous before a presentation, take deep breathes, smile and start.

Task 1,5. Which of these do you think gives an audience a good Impression.

• looking at your shoes;

• laughing all the time;

• turning your back on the audience,

• keeping eye contact with members of the audiences;

• having your notes in the wrong order,

• looking out of the. window;

• swaying from side to side

• hands in your pockets;

• a bored look;

• a smile;

• shouting;

• apologizing all the time;

• talking to all the audience not just your friends;

• sitting down;

• speaking with enthusiasm.

Check your answers with those tn Appendix 1.

NB1 Nates to Presenters

• You must be able to get attention

• You must be able to hold attention.

• You must be clear.

• You must support your ideas with proof.

• You must use appropriate language.

• You must give your listener a chance to respond.

• You must be able to access your effectiveness accurately.

Suggestions for Delivering Your Speeches

Your speech is more than just the words you use. How you say something is just as important as what you say.

Make your language natural and comprehensive for the audience:

1. Under no circumstances should you read your paper. Even if English is not your first language it is always a mistake to read.

2 Be sure that you keep to the schedule and always allow 3-5 minutes for questions and discussions.

3. Practice your speech in front of a full-length mirror, this gives you opportunity to monitor your eye contact and other aspens of delivery previously discussed.

4. Tape record yourself while rehearsing As you play back the recording of your speech, be sure to listen for errors in content and delivery. Write down any corrections and work on improving them during your next practice session.

5. Practice your speech in front of a friend or family members. Pretend that you are actually delivering your speech in front of your classmates Ask your "audience" to comment on various aspects of your delivery.

Unit 2. Organising Information in your Presentation

NB!: You have already decided on the title and the purpose of your presentation, you know who your audience is going to be, you have completed the research and decided on the main points that you wish to make. It is now time to plan exactly what you are going to say.

The well thought out presentation will have the following overall structure:

Introduction --- Main Points --- Conclusion --- Questions

Task 2.1. The following is a list of the steps which you should include in your introduction. Look at the list and re-write it in the correct order.

1. State your first main point.

2. State the purpose of your presentation.

3. Introduce yourself.

4. Greet the audience.

5. State how your presentation is to be structured.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

Task 2.2a, Read the phrases and decide if they are Greetings or Introductions.

• I would like to introduce myself to those who don't know me, I am...

• Good morning, everyone...

• I’m pleased that so many of you were able to make it this morning…

• I would like to welcome you to my talk today…

• Let me introduce myself; My name is...

• Thank you all for coming...

• It is good to see you all here today …

• May I first introduce myself, I am...

• My name is ... from...

Task 2.2b. Read the phrases and decide if they are stating the purpose of your presentation or how your presentation is to be structured.

• Today I am going talk about…

I The subject of this presentation is…

• My topic today is going to be...

• I will start by arguing that...

• This presentation will consider...

• Secondly I am going to explain...

• Lastly, I want to show...

• My third point is that...

NBI: Organizing information

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop an idea. In nearly every paragraph, there is one idea that is more important than all the others. The main idea of the paragraph is usually found at the beginning.

Sample paragraph 1:

All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities. They have circuits for performing' arithmetic operations. They all have a way of communicating with the person(s) using them. They also have circuits for making decisions.

All main idea sentences have a topic and say something about the topic. In some of your reading, finding main ideas may serve your needs but, in much I of your studying, you need to understand details. It is sometimes more difficult to understand details than main ideas. You will find it helpful if you think of details as growing out of the main idea.

A major detail often has minor details growing out of it. These minor details tell more about a major detail, just as major details tell more about a main idea. In studying, you often find a paragraph that has many small details that you must understand and remember. Breaking up a paragraph of this kind into its three components: the main idea, major details, and minor details will help you to understand and remember what it is about.

Sample paragraph 2:

it is the incredible speed of computers, along with their memory capacity, which makes them so useful and valuable. Computers can solve problems in a fraction of the time it takes men. For this reason, businesses use them to keep their accounts, and airline, railway, and bus companies use them to control ticket sales. As for memory, modem computers can store information with high accuracy and reliability. A computer can put data into its memory and retrieve It again in a few millionths of a second. It also has a storage capacity for as many as a million items

If you were to organize this paragraph into its three components, it would look like below:

Main idea

It is the incredible speed of computers, along with their memory

capacity, which makes them so useful and valuable.

Computers can solve

Modern computers

Major details

problems much faster than

can store information

humans .

with high accuracy

and reliability.

Businesses

Transport

A

It also has

use them to

companies

computer

a storage

keep

use them to

can put

eapacity,

accounts.

keep of

data into its

for as many

ticket sales.

memory

track as a

Minor details

and

million

retrieve it

items.

again in a

few

mil Months

Of of of a

second.

In making a block diagram you don't have to write every word in the main idea sentence or in each of the detail sentences.

Task 2.3. Practice finding the main idea, major details, and minors by completing the block diagram after reading the following paragraph:

The computer has changed the production of copy in the newspaper industry. There are three steps involved in the process; input, correction, and output. First, the computer numbers each story, counts words, end gives a listing of the length of each story. Then, a page is made up, adveitisements are placed in, the copy is shifted or deleted, end corrections are made. Finally, the computer hyphenates words, end the result of all this is a newspaper page.

The computer has changed the production of copy in the newspaper industry

Main idea

M ajor details Minor details

Task 2.4. Practice finding the main idea, major details, and minors by completing the diagram after reading the following paragraph..

Railway companies use large computer systems to control ticket reservations and to give immediate information on the status of their trains. The computer system is connected by private telephone lines to terminals in major train stations, and ticket reservations for customers are made through these phone lines. The passenger's name, type of accommodation, and the train schedule is put into the computer's memory. On a typical day, a railway's computer system gets thousands of telephone calls about reservations, space on other railways, and requests for arrivals and departures. A big advantage of the railway computer ticket reservation system is its rapidity because a cancelled booking can be sold anywhere in the system just a few seconds later. Railway computer systems are not used for reservations alone. They are used for a variety of other jobs including train schedules, planning, freight and cargo loading, meal .

. Mam idea

Major details

Minor details

Terminals for ticket reservation
		Thousands of
		calls for
		reservations,
		space, arrivals,
		and departures

NBI: The conclusion and the last part of your presentation is as important as the introduction. Firstly, it gives you

chance to tell the audience again your main points; It is there fore a chance to summarise for the audience. Secondly, the conclusion is the chance for the audience to participate and to respond to the ideas that you have put across. Which of the following phrases you think could be used to introduce your conclusion to the audience?

Task 2.6. Look at the following phrases and decide which of them you think could be used to Introduce your conclusion to the audience?

1. In conclusion then I'd like to go over my main points...

2. To sum up, J have explained 6 main ideas …

3. Summing up then I'll just reiterate my main points...

4. To end this presentation then I shall just repeat the main ideas...

5. To conclude this talk I'd just tike to emphasise main points again...

Task 2.8. Look at this conclusion to a presentation and put the sentences into the correct order.

1........my third point was that nuclear power is more economic to produce in the long term. 2………I started by arguing that the traditional fuels were running out yet the supplies of uranium should last for another 5000 years. 3.......... my presentation has outlined what I see as the four main advantages in the production and use of nuclear power. 4.......... thank you for your attention, are there any questions. 5......... lastly, I showed how safe the production of nuclear power is. 6 secondly I explained how the use of nuclear power was less damaging to our environment than fossil fuels.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1

NB!: The last sentence of your presentation then should invite the audience to ask you questions.

Task 2.7. Here are some ways of inviting questions from your audience. Which do you think that you could use?

1) That's it. Any questions?

2) Thank you all for your attention, are there any questions?

3) That concludes my talk, are there any questions?

4) That's all I wish to say, thanks for listening, and I'd be happy to answer any questions.

5) That is the end of my presentation I should be grateful for your ideas, comments and reactions. I thank you for your attention.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

Listing

It is important when reading to recognize and understand the relationship in which sentences and groups of sentences combine to present information. This information may be linked by means of a connective word or marker.

Making a list, for example when enumerating, and giving instructions indicates a cataloguing of what is being said It is important to note that most enumerations belong to clearly defined sets The following table is a list of the markers that can be used to show the order in which things are to be said.

1,2,3, etc.

one, two, three, etc.

first(ly), second(ly), third place

another, next, then, furthermore, afterwards,

moreover

lastly/finally, to begin/start with, and to conclude

first and foremost } mark the beginning

first and most important(ly) } of a descending

order

above all } mark the end of

last but not least } an ascending order

NB!: There are many ways of showing sequential relationships. Those given in the table above are not the only ones, they are the most common ones used in listing or enumerating. The –ly forms are usually used when listing.

Sample paragraphs:

More and more police departments are now using sophisticated devices to help control the increasing crime rate. Some of these devices are: firstly, a computer terminal inside a police vehicle to answer an officer's questions, secondly, a computer-controlled display unit for displaying fingerprints, and thirdly educational systems for police officers such as terminals, enabling them to verify changes in laws, rules, and regulations:

The computer memory of many law enforcement systems соntains all kinds of information. First and foremost, it has data on stolen items such as cars, license plates, and property. Second, it has information on missing persons and wanted fugitives. Last but not least, it contains information on political extremist groups and their activities.

Computers have certainly revolutionized police work by providing access to millions of items of information with the least possible delay and speeding up the process of apprehending suspicious-looking characters.

Task 2.8. Complete the following paragraph about the various steps in the creation of a database by filling in the blanks with appropriate listing markers.

When you are creating a new database, you must 1______decide how many fields you will need in your database. 2 ______, you will have to provide up to five items of information about each field. 3______, each field needs to have a name. 4______, the field type has to be defined. Character, numeric, date, and logical are some common types. 5 ______choice to be made is the width of the field. However, some fields, such as date, have present default values. The 6______step is to set the number of decimal places if the field is numeric. 7_______, you will have to indicate whether the field is to be indexed or not.

Check your answers with those in Appendix 1.

Task 2.9, Complete the following paragraph by filling in the blanks with appropriate listing markers.

Computers can do wonders, but they can waste a lot of money unless careful consideration goes into buying them. Businessmen and women thinking of buying a computer system should 1 ______admit they know very little about computers. 2________, they must realize that the computer sales people don't always know how their business works. 3_______, it is essential that buyers should get outside advice, no necessarily from consultants but from other executives who have had recent experience in buying a computer system. 4.________they should try to see systems similar to ones under consideration in operation. Because their operations will have differences that must be accommodated, they should. 5. _____find out what would be involved in upgrading a system. 6.______important thing to know before buying a computer is the financial situation of the supplier because computer companies come and go and not all are financially stable. 7______, the prospective buyer should demand that every detail be covered in writing, including hardware and software if they are supplied by different companies. There's nothing wrong with computers themselves, it's how and why they are used that can cause problems.

Giving examples

When the main aim of a text is to inform the reader about a subject, the writer will often use examples, either to explain a point or to illustrate an idea or argument. When giving examples, it is important to differentiate between the idea itself and the illustration of the idea.

Some expressions for introducing examples are shown in the table below.

For example (e.g.)	Examples of	Shown by
For instance	Instances of	exemplifies
An example (of this)	Cases of	shows
As an example	Illustrations of	Illustrates
Such as	Exemplified by	A second/third example
like	Illustrated by	Etc.
including	seen

Sample 1. Office workers use many computer applications such as word processing, spreadsheets, and databases.

Sample 2. Computers have made radical changes in preparing income tax returns. For example, in some countries you can now send your income tax return on disk.

Sample З. Students can make good use of computer technology at school. Essay writing,for instance, can be done using a word-processing program.

NB!: Sometimes the markers follow the example, separated by commas, as in 3 above.

Task 2.10. The list below is made up of five groups of words, consisting of five main categories and examples of each category. Find the word groups and then write sentences to show the relationship between the groups of words. Use a different marker for each sentence. One has been done for you.

trackball	bus	PC
mainframe	output device	star
microcomputer	printer	VDU
network configuration	APL	С
programming language	COBOL	ring
mouse	stylus	computer
input device

Model: Ring, bus, and star are all examples of network configurations.

Task 2.11. Read the following sentences. Circle the marker and underline the main idea for which the example is given.

Networks also allow users in one locality to share expensive resources, such as printers and disk-systems.

1. There are a handful of clipboard computers now on the market, including GRIDPad, which is sold in the US.

2. The PC passes the query, written in a special language (e.g. Structured Query Language - SQL), to the mainframe, which then parses the query, returning to the user only the data requested.

3. Here's an example of a simple virus, the Lehigh virus

4. If you use a shared PC or a PC that has public access, such as one in a college PC lab or a library, be very careful about putting floppies into that PC's drives without a write-protect tab.

Task 2.12. Not all texts present examples explicitly, in some cases, markers are not used, Read the paragraph below. Find the main ides and define the examples of that idea.

The widespread availability of computers has in all probability; changed the world for ever. The microchip technology which made the PC possible has put chips not only into computers, but also into washing- machines and cars. Some books may never be published in paper form, but may only be made available as part of public databases. Networks of computers are already being used to make information available on a world-wide scale.

Cause end effect

Understanding the different ways of expressing the relationship between the causes and the effects of an action is very important when you are reading English. This cause-effect relationship is commonly used in texts about computing.

Before we look at some of the ways of expressing cause and effect, note carefully this important distinction.

We can mention the cause before the effect.

Sample 1: (cause) (effect)

Dust often causes the recording condition of disks to deteriorate.

We can mention the effect before the cause.

Sample 2: (effect) (cause)

Deterioration in the recording condition of disks is often due to dust.

There are many different ways of expressing cause end effect.

Verbs linking cause and effect: '

Result, cause, produce, result in, allow, result from, prevent, bring about,, enable

Sample 1. The introduction of computer technology brought about

significant changes in office routines, (cause  effect)

Sample 2. Computers can create artificial objects in tneir memories. This allows developers to test product design without actually creating a real prototype. (cause  effect)

Sample 3. The extensive use of computers in schools is resulting in a new generation of computer-literate students. (cause  effect)

Sample 4. The problems were caused by the volume of network traffic. (effect cause)

Connectives introducing cause:

Due to, as the/a result of, since, because, in response to, as.

Sample 1. Early computers developed quickly as a result of their use in military applicatons. (effectcause)

Sample 2. Teachers must rethink their roles as computer technology is creating a revolution in the classroom, (effect  cause)

Sample 3. Because off-the-shelf programs do not always fit a company's needs, software often has to be specially developed, (effect cause)

Connectives introducing result:

with the result that, so that, thus, therefore, consequently, hence, for this reason, thereby. Sample 1. Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks, thereby leaving us with more time for interesting, creative work. (cause  effect)

Sample 2. Carpel tunnel syndrome is a serious medical condition. For this reason, computer users should be careful of their posture and take frequent breaks. (cause effect)

Sample 3. When using an online database service, you must pay for the time you use. Consequently, you should have a good idea of what you want before you log on. (cause  effect)

NB!: Another way of showing causal relationship is by introducing the; cause with V. Both the cause clause and the effect clause verbs are in the present tense.

Sample 1. If your company has a LAN. you can share the use of a printer with your colleagues, (cause  effect)

Sample 2. It is easy to transport your data to another location if it is stored on a disk, (effect  cause)

Task 2.13. Read the following sentences and define the part which expresses the cause.

1. Because a modem can be used for inter-computer communication, many people can now do their office work on their computer at home and transfer the files to a computer at the office.

2. Many people do not explore new software because they are comfortable with what they already have.

3. When robots malfunction, it is usually due to mistakes in the programming or the design.

4. Laser printers can be quite expensive and are therefore often shared through networks.

5. Voice-recognition systems are becoming more sophisticated. Thus keyboards may be unnecessary in the future.

Task 2.14. Read the following sentences and define the part which expresses the effect/result.

1. Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks from our lives, thereby leaving us with more time for interesting and creative work.

2. Because there are many different types of printers, you must analize your needs before making a purchase.

3. Since anyone can consult your files on a computer, it is a good idea to protect sensitive files with a password.

4. Fax boards are available to plug Into your computer, so you do not have to buy a fax machine.

5. Computers have been reduced in both size and cost as a result of advances in design and technology.

Task 2.15. Read them again and find the marker showing a cause-effect relationship and define the part of the sentence that expresses the cause.

1. By 1980, IBM decided there was a market for 250,000 PCs, (so they set up a special team to develop the first IBM PC.

2. Because of these and so many other different judgements, there can be no absolute.

3. Global communication and computer networks will become more and more a part of professional and personal Jives' as the price of microcomputers and network access drops.

4. One of the features of a computer virus that separates it from other kinds of computer program is that It replicates itself, so that it can spread - to other computers.

5. Lehigh is waiting to infect other unsuspecting computers if you boot from one of those four infected floppies.

6. As they became more proficient on the computer, some showed gains in their overall self-confidence, as well.

7. Robots are better at this task, not because they are faster or cheaper than humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot.

2. This automatic accuracy is particularly valuable in this kind of industry because locating and fixing mistakes is costly

9. Artificial worlds are being built up in a computer memory so that people can walk through at will, look around, and even touch objects.

Making predictions

A prediction is a statement about a particular subject in which we say what we think will happen in the future. Predictions are not always absolute, but can be expressed with different levels of certainty, according to the context in which they are made.

Certainty can be expressed by:

will (definitely, certainly), certain, sure, without a doubt, without question

Probability can be expressed by:

probable, probably, • likely, most/highly probable, most probably, most/highly likely

Possibility can be expressed by:

may (not), might (not), can, could possible, possibly, perhaps

Improbability can be expressed by:

improbable, unlikely doubtful, questionable, probably not, most/highly improbable/unlikely, most/highly doubtful/questionable, most probably not