Unit 15

Grammar:

1. Complex Object

2. For + Noun (Pronoun) + Infinitive

Text № 15(A)

The modern theory of light

In the history of the theory of light we see that two very different models have vied from the outset as to which is the true model to be used. On the one hand, light was pictured as a wave motion of some sort, and on the other as a flight of fast-moving particles.

During the 19th century the former model gained universal acceptance thanks to a remarkable series of developments on both the experimental and theoretical basis.

The wave theory of light seemed to have defeated the particle theory when it explained the approximately rectilinear propagation. The theory was found by the physicists to be adequate enough to explain all the experimental results of the nineteenth century in terms of the wave theory.

However, early in the twentieth century a series of observations on photo-electricity gave rise to a really serious difficulty for the wave theory. It was found that light could cause atoms tо emit electrons and that, when light released an electron from an atom, the energy possessed by the electron very greatly exceeded that which the atom could, according to electromagnetic-wave theory, have received. It was at this point that the wave theory failed to suggest an explanation. It was this fact and others associated with it that showed the wave hypothesis to be incomp1ete.

A return, at least to some extent, to the particle theory of light appeared to be necessary. In 1905 Einstein suggested that in order to adequately describe these observations, it was necessary to assume that the energy of a light beam is not evenly spread over the whole beam, but is concentrated in the form of small particles proportional to the frequency of light. These localized concentrations of energy he called "photons" or "light quanta".

For the observation to be described in detail it is necessary to assume that the photons corresponding to light of the wavelength all have the same energy, those of blue light having nearly twice the energy of the red. Photons are propagated like particles. It is assumed that there are usually a very large number of them, the energy in any one photon being very small. Thus in most ordinary experiments, the energy of a light beam is evenly distributed, just as a gas exerts a very nearly uniform pressure on the surface of an ordinary vessel, because each molecule is very small and the number of molecules is very large. When the movements of an ultra-microscopic particle are observed the irregularities of the Brownian movements show the discontinuous "structure" of the gas. In a similar way, the atom presents to the light beam an area so small that it indi­cates the presence of "molecules of light" or photons.

Thus, on the one hand, stand all the phenomena of interference, diffraction and polarization which are so well described by the wave theory. On the other hand, modern experiment has greatly increased the number and range of the experiments which are readily described in terms of photons. The electromagnetic picture has no place for the photons, and the particle theory has no place for the wave. Yet, both are required to give a complete description of the phenomena.

According to the present concept light has a dual character such that it may be represented equally well by waves or by particles. The wave and particle properties of light are found by modern scientists to be two different aspects of the same thing. These two aspects are to be regarded as complementary rather than antagonistic, each being correct when dealing with the phenomena in its own domain. In macroscopic effects light can be treated as a continuous wave and in microscopic ones the photon aspect begins to become important. Though there seems to be no doubt as to the essential correctness of this theory we still find it difficult to understand how these two theories can both be true. Yet, we are forced to do so by the mass of good evidence which can be brought forward in support of each of them. The acceptance of this concept required a fundamental change in our ideas.

Exercises

I Translate the sentences paying attention to the meanings of the verbs in bold type.

gain

1. An atom may gain one or more electrons.

2. Using this type of engine one can gain much in terms of effectiveness.

3. A rocket with a constant thrust continually gains in speed.

4. This book is for anyone who wants to gain, with the least difficulty, a complete understanding of the fundamentals of radio and electronics.

fail

5. All the attempts to explain the processes of emission and absorption through the electromagnetic theory of light have failed.

6. The classical laws of both mechanics and electricity fail to predict the behavior of atoms.

7. Helicopters were used to transport men and supplies to the forward line when ground transport failed.

8. Some scientists failed to realize the role of mathematics in science.

9. The author did not fail to make reference to all the previous works concerning the subject of his article.

suggest

10. The step-rocket for space travel was suggested by Tsiolkovsky.

11. The scientist suggested a new method of measuring cosmic ray intensities.

12. Rutherford suggested that the positive charge of electricity was concentrated in the nucleus of the atom.

13. Ampere suggested that the origin of all magnetism lay in small circulating currents associated with each atom.

14. The book "Analytical Mechanics for Engineers," as its name suggests, presents those principles of mechanics that are essential for the study of engineering.

assume

16. It is ordinary assumed that uncharged objects contain equal amounts of positive and negative electricity.

17. The air in the "standard" atmosphere is assumed to be perfectly dry.

18. A liquid is unable to maintain a particular shape and it immediately assumes the shape of the container.

19. Rockets may assume a great variety of forms and sizes.