Lexicology(exam)

24.Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. Likewise compounds resulting from two or more stems joined together to form a new word are also built on quite definite structural and semantic patterns and formulas(snow-white). It can easily be observed that the meaning of the whole compound is also related to the meanings of the component parts. The structural patterns with the semantic relations they signal give rise to regular new creations of derivatives, e.g. sleeper, giver, smiler.

Two types of word-formation: word-derivation and word-composition (or compounding). Words created by word-derivation have in terms of word-formation analysis only one derivational base and one derivational affix, e.g. cleanness (from clean), chairmanship (from chairman). Words created by word-composition have at least two bases, e.g. lamp-shade, ice-cold.The basic ways of forming words in word-derivatiоn, for instance, are affixation and conversion.

25.Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes.

Prefixes may be classified on different principles.

1)according to the class of words they preferably form.A small group of 5 prefixes may be referred to exclusively verb-forming (en-, be-, un-, etc.).

2)as to the type of lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to into: a) deverbal, e. g. rewrite, outstay, overdo, etc.; b) denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain, ex-president, etc. and c) deadjectival,

3. semantically prefixes fall into mono- and polysemantic ¹;

4. as to the generic denotational meaning there are different groups that are distinguished in linguistic literature:

a) negative prefixes, such as: un₁-, non-, in-, dis₁-, a-, e.g.,unemployment (cf. employment).

b)reversative or privative prefixes, such as un₂-, de-, dis₂-, e.g. untie (cf. tie), unleash (cf. leash).

c)prefix of repetition re-, e.g. rebuild (cf. build), re-write (cf. write).

26.Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a, different part of speech(child — childhood, friend — friendship).

Suffixes may be divided into several groups according to different principles:

1) The first principle of classification that suggests itself is the part of speech formed. Within the scope of the part-of-speech classification suffixes naturally fall into several groups:

1. noun-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns, e.g. -er, -dom, -ness, -ation, etc. (teacher, Londoner, freedom, brightness, justification, etc.);

2. adjective-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adjectives, e.g. -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, etc. (agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous, etc.);

3. verb-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in verbs, e.g. -en, -fy, -ise (-ize) (darken, satisfy, harmonise, etc.);

4. adverb-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adverbs, e.g. -ly, -ward (quickly, eastward)

2)according to the lexico-grammatical character of the base the affix is usually added to:

1. deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e.g. -er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. (speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);

2. denominal suffixes (those added to the noun base), e.g. -less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some.(handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome);

3) Still another classification of suffixes may be worked out if one examines them from the angle of stylistic reference:

1. those characterised by neutral stylistic reference such as -able, -er, -ing;

2. those having a certain stylistic value such as -oid, -i/form, -aceous, -tron.

27. .Word-Formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns. The term conversionrefers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word-forms, primarily the so-called initial forms, of two words belonging to different parts of speech(work — to work; love — to love).

The following typical semantic relations:

I. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs)--The semantic relations between the nouns and verbs vary greatly. If the noun refers to some object of reality (both animate and inanimate) the converted verb may denote:

1. action characteristic of the object, e.g. butcher n — butcher v — ‘kill animals for food, cut up a killed animal’;

2. instrumental use of the object, e.g. screw n — screw v — ‘fasten with a screw’.

3. acquisition or addition of the object, e.g. fish n — fish v — ‘catch or try to catch fish’.

II. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives)--The verb generally referring to an action, the converted noun may denote:

1. instance of the action, e.g. jump v — jump n — ’sudden spring from the ground’.

2. agent of the action, e.g. help v — help n — ‘a person who helps’.

3. place of the action, e.g. drive v — drive n — ‘a path or road along which one drives’.

28.Compounding or word-composition is one of the productive types of word-formation in Modern English. Composition like all other ways of deriving words has its own peculiarities as to the means used, the nature of bases and their distribution, as to the range of application, the scope of semantic classes and the factors conducive to productivity (week-end, office-management,postage-stamp). Compounds are made up of two ICs which are both derivational bases. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units. They are formally and semantically dependent on the constituent bases and the semantic relations between them which mirror the relations between the motivating units. Compound words like all other inseparable vocabulary units take shape in a definite system of grammatical forms, syntactic and semantic features.

29.Word-composition is one of the productive types of word-formation in Modern English. Structurally compound words are characterised by the specific order and arrangement in which bases follow one another. Graphically most compounds have two types of spelling — they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen.(daughter-in-law). Semantically compound words are generally motivated units..(board, notice-board, key-board). Compound words may be described from different points of view and consequently may be classified according to different principles. They may be viewed from the point of view: 1) of general relationship and degree of semantic independence of components; 2) of the parts of speech compound words represent; 3) of the means of composition used to link the two ICs together; 4) of the type of ICs that are brought together to form a compound; 5) of the correlative relations with the system of free word- groups.

23.Antonymy in general shares many features typical of synonymy. Like synonyms, perfect or complete antonyms are fairly rare.

It is usual to find the relations of antonymy restricted to certain contexts(thin- fat).

The following groups:

1.Contradictories which represent the type of semantic relations that exist between pairs like dead and alive, single and married

.2.Contraries differ from contradictories mainly because contradictories admit of no possibility between them(man — woman).

3.Incompatibles. Semantic relations of incompatibility exist among the antonyms with the common component of meaning and may be described as the reverse of hyponymy, i.e. as the relations of exclusion but not of contradiction(a handsome man—an ugly man).

22.A verb(to look) which possesses the highest frequency of use compared with its synonyms, and so plays an impor­tant role in communication. Its role and position in relation to its synonyms is also of some importance as it presents a kind of centre of the group of synonyms, as it were, holding it together.Its semantic structure is quite simple: it consists only of denotative component and it has no connotations.

All synonymic groups have a "central" word of this kind whose meaning is equal to the denotation common to all the synonymic group. This word is called the dominant synonym.

Ex.To surprise — to astonish — to amaze — to astound.

To shout — to yell — to bellow — to roar.

The dominant synonym expresses the notion common to all syno­nyms of the group in the most general way, without contributing any additional information as to the manner, intensity, duration or any attending feature of the referent.The following characteristic fea­tures of the dominant synonym can be underlined:

I. High frequency of usage.

II. Broad combinability, i. e. ability to be used in combinations with various classes of words.

3. Broad general meaning.

Lack of connotations. (This goes for stylistic con notations as well, so e referent.

20.Synonymy is associated with some theoretical problems which at present are still an object of controversy. The most contro­versial among these is the problem of criteria of synonymy. To put it in simpler words, we are still not certain which words should cor­rectly be considered as synonyms, nor are we agreed as to the charac­teristic features which qualify two or more words as synonyms.

Traditional linguistics solved this problem with the conceptual cri­terion and defined synonyms as words of the same category of parts of speech conveying the same concept but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.

Some aspects of this definition have been criticised. It has been pointed out that linguistic phenomena should be defined in linguistic terms and that the use of the term concept makes this an extralinguistic definition. In contemporary research on synonymy semantic criterion is fre­quently used.

21.Synonyms are words different in their sound-form,but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts.

Synonyms are traditionally described as words different in sound-form but identical or similar in meaning.

Differentiation of synonyms may be observed in different semantic components— denotational or connotational.

The difference in denotational meaning cannot exceed certain limits, and is always combined with some common denotational component. Synonymity implies certain differences in the denotational meaning of synonyms.

Classification of synonyms:

a)idiographic (are words convain the same concept but different in shades of meaning.Ex: to look,to cry);

b)stylistic(are words different in their stylistic characteristics.Ex: large-big).

This classification proceeds from the assumption that synonyms may differ either in the denotational meaning (ideographic synonyms) оr the connotational meaning, or to be more exact stylistic reference. This assumption cannot be accepted as synonymous words always differ in the denotational component