Grammatika_Saakyan

back, can't help doing, it goes without saying, etc.

•You are asking for trouble, my boy.

He didn't even take the trouble of phoning us.

III. An emphatic self-pronoun should be placed after the word it emphasises or at the end of the sentence.

•He himself told me about it. I have thought of it myself. Life itself proves it. They themselves phoned us.

The Negative Pronoun No and the Negative Particle Not

The pronoun no is used as an attribute with all classes of nouns both in the singular and in the plural and it's the only modifier of the noun, while not requires either an article or an indefinite pronoun after it.

•No drum was heard. — Not a sound came. No trees could be seen. - Not a leaf stirred.

I will give you no trouble. - Not a soul in sight.

The pronoun no means not... a, when modifying a countable noun in the singular.

• I've no pen with me. = I haven't a pen with me.

It means not... any when modifying a countable noun in the plural or some uncountable nouns.

•I saw no children in the park. = I didn't see any children in the park. We had no sugar. = We didn't have any sugar.

No is usually preferable before the subject.

•There was no table in the room.

No stars could be seen. There are no comments.

The Verb

The Verb is a part of speech which denotes a process or a state.

I. According to their meanings and functions in the sentence English verbs are classified into notional and structural verbs.

Notional verbs always have a lexical meaning of their own and can have an independent function in the sentence.

• We live in Moscow and love our city.

Structural verbs cannot have an independent syntactic function in the sentence — they are always closely connected with some other words,

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forming a compound predicate (verbal or nominal). Modal verbs, link verbs, and auxiliary verbs belong to structural verbs.

A modal verb is always accompanied by an infinitive — together they form a modal predicate.

• You must join us. I can do it. You should know better.

A link-verb is followed by a predicative thus forming a nominal Indicate.

An auxiliary verb is devoid of any lexical meaning. These verbs are: do, to be, to have, shall, will, should, would. Combined with a notion-verb they serve to build up analytical forms.

•We had seen the play before. Do you enjoy dancing?

Don't worry. I'll be home before evening.

Polysemantic verbs have, do, be may be notional as well as structural words. Compare:

•He has three children, (a notional verb used in the meaning to possess) I had to give up smoking. (a structural word: a modal verb denoting obligation, part of a modal predicate)

I have come for your advice. (a structural word: an auxiliary verb which serves to build up an analytical form)

II. Owing to the historical development of the verb system, all English verbs fall into two groups: regular and irregular verbs.

The regular verbs constitute the largest group. The Simple Past and Participle II of these verbs are formed by means of the suffix -ed added the stem of the verb:

•live — lived — lived; play — played — played.

The irregular verbs (they are about 250 in number) form their Simple Past and Participle

IIaccording to some fixed traditional patterns:

•wear—wore — worn; leave — left — left; send — sent — sent.

IV. The forms of the verb may be of two different kinds — synthetic and analytical forms.

Synthetic forms are built up by a change in the word itself:

• I find, I found.

I came, saw and won.

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Analytical forms consist of two or more components.

• He has done his duty.

You are being difficult today.

The first component is an auxiliary verb which has no lexical meaning — it expresses only the grammatical meaning (the third person singular, the indicative mood, the active voice, a fulfilled action). The second component is a notional verb which is the bearer of the lexical meaning.

Thus an analytical form consists of two or more words — a structural word and a notional word — which form a very close, inseparable unit.

V. The English verb has finite (complete) and non-finite (incomplete) forms.

The verb in its finite form possesses the morphological categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice and mood. Its syntactical function is that of the predicate of the sentence.

The non-finite forms (also called Verbals) are the Infinitive, the Gerund, Participle I and Participle II.

Verbals do not function as true verbs. Their syntactical function in the sentence may be different because verbals can be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. They can not have any morphological categories, and can not function as the predicate of the sentence, only as part of it.

VI. The English verb has the grammatical category of tense, aspect, voice and mood. Tense is the form of the verb which indicates the time of the action. The category of

tense in English is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in referring the events, or states to the present, past or future.

Aspect is the form of the verb which serves to express the manner in which the action is performed. It is presented in English by the opposition of the continuous aspect and the common aspect.

Voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject. There are two voices in English: the active voice and the passive voice. The verb in the active voice shows that the subject

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is the doer of the action; the verb in the passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon. Mood is the form of the verb which shows in what relation to reality is the action expressed

by the speaker.

In present-day English the category of mood is made up by a set of forms presenting the events as real facts, problematic actions or as something absolutely unreal. Accordingly there are direct and indirect moods in English. The Direct Moods are the Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood.

1.The Indicative Mood represents actions as real facts. It's a Fact Mood.

•We are students of the English department.

2.The Imperative Mood expresses commands and requests. It's a Will Mood.

•Come over there. Relax! Cool down!

The Present Tenses (the Simple Present, the

Present Progressive, the Present Perfect, the

Present Perfect Progressive)

All the present tenses refer to the actions which they denote to the present, that is to the time of speaking.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT

I.The Simple Present is formed with the help of the infinitive with out the particle to. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s/-es. The interrogative and the negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb do in the Simple Present and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

•— Do you work? — I do not work.

—Does he work? — He does not work.

II.The Simple Present is used:

1.to state simple facts, habitual actions in the present.

•I live in Tula but every weekend I go to Moscow.

On Sundays we usually stay at home, sometimes we go to the country.

2.to state laws of nature, universal truths, in proverbs and sayings.

•It snows in winter and it rains in summer in this country. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

Still waters run deep. Old love doesn't rust.

3.to denote a succession of actions going on at the moment of speaking.

•She comes in, takes off her coat, flings it on the chair and walks over to the mirror.

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4. in subordinate clauses of time, condition and concession instead of the Simple Future after the conjunctions when, till, until, as soon as, before, after, if, unless, in case, on

condition that, provided, even if.

• if he gets a good rest, he'll be his usual self tomorrow. I'll see him before I go to bed. Do it as soon as you are through with your duties. Even if he hates me, I shall never do him any harm.

Note: In object clauses introduced by the conjunctions when and if the Simple Future is used to denote future actions:

•I don't know when she will come. I'm not sure if she will come at all. I wonder if they will come on time.

5. to express an action going on at the moment of speaking with non-progressive verbs like believe, belong, understand, need, realize, remember, prefer.

•I believe I understand her. It sounds great.

Yes, I remember her well.

6. with the verbs to forget, to hear, to be told, to denote past actions.

•I forget your telephone number. Will you say it again, please? I hear you are leaving for England,

We are told she returned from England last week.

The following adverbs of indefinite time are the signals of this tense:

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

I. The Present Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Simple Present and Participle I of the notional verb.

• He is working. We are resting. I am thinking of you!

The same auxiliary verb is used in the interrogative and the negative forms.

•Are you working? Is he working?

We are not working. He is not working.

II. The Present Progressive is used to express: 1. an action going on at the moment of speaking.

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•Look, how happily they are playing!

— What are you doing? — I am cleaning these silver spoons.

Note: Stative non-progressive verbs denoting physical perceptions, emotions, mental abilities are not usually used in the Present Progressive. The Simple Present is used instead:

•Do you see that boy? I understand you. Do you recognize me?

a)some stative verbs can be used in the progressive form when they change their meaning. For example, the verb to be in the Present Progressive expresses certain state or quality peculiar for the person at the given moment. Such usage can be found only in highly emotional contexts.

•We are being fools to go there by ourselves!

You are being rude to this girl. Aren't you forgetting your manners? Look where you go. You're being careless!

b)the verbs of sense and mental perception (see, hear, understand) are used to express

surprise, doubt, disbelief (especially in questions).

•What am I hearing here?

I can't believe what I am seeing! Am I understanding you correctly?

2.an action going on at the present period of time.

•Are you writing a new book? No cakes for me. I'm slimming.

She's spending a good deal on dresses of late.

3.actions generally characterising the person denoted by the subject, bringing out the person's typical traits. Such sentences are emotionally coloured, expressing irritation, disapproval, praise, etc. In such sentences the adverbials always or constantly are obligatory.

•You're always showing off!

She's constantly complaining that she has so much to do.

4.actions which will take place in the near future due to one's previous decision. The action is regarded as something definitely settled (mostly verbs of motion such as to move, to come, to go, to leave, to return, to start are used).

•He's returning on Monday. The boat is sailing next week.

Note: The Present Progressive of the verb to go + infinitive is commonly used to denote future fulfillment of the present situation:

•I'm going to study Italian. It is going to snow. She's going to have a baby.

5.an action in progress which is simultaneous with some other action or state denoted by the verb in the Simple Present. It is used in adverbial clauses of time and condition after the conjunctions when, while, as long as, if, in case, unless.

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• I never talk when I am working.

You must always watch the traffic lights when you're crossing the street. Try not to make much noise when you are stirring your tea.

THE PRESENT PERFECT

The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Simple Present and Participle II of the notional verb.

• I have worked. He has worked. We have met at last.

The same auxiliary verb is used to form the interrogative and the negative forms.

• Have you worked? He has not worked.

The Present Perfect is used in present time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. It is not found in narration where reference is usually made to past events. The Present Perfect may be resultative (exclusive) and durative

(inclusive).

I. The Present Perfect Resultative (Exclusive) is used to denote a completed action connected with the present through its result.

• I've bought a good dictionary.

You can't see her, she has gone home.

The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs of indefinite time and frequency

such as ever, just, already, before, never, not... yet, lately, of late, so far.

• Have you heard of him lately? I haven't even had coffee yet. We' haven't done much so far.

Notes:

a) The Present Perfect is possible with adverbial modifiers of time that denote a period of time which is not over yet, e.g. today, this morning, this week, this month, this year.

But if the period is over, the Simple Past is used.

• — Did you read the article in The Times this morning? (it is no longer morning)

— No, I haven't had time to look at the paper today, (today is not over yet)

b) In special questions introduced by where, how, who, what, why, what... for both the Present Perfect and the Past Simple are possible. The choice of tense in such cases is situational.

Compare:

•Why have you done this to me? (I'm upset)

Why did you do this? (at a certain past moment)

In when-questions only the Simple Past is used.

• When did you go there? When did it happen?

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с) The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time introduced, by the conjunctions when, before, as soon as, till and until to stress the completion of the action of the subordinate clause before the action of the principal one.

•We'll see about it when you've had your tea.

I can tell you whether the machine is good when I have tried it.

II.The Present Perfect Durative (Inclusive)

1. It expresses an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Progressive. However the Present Perfect Durative is found with verbs that cannot be used in the progressive form. The whole period of the duration of the action may be marked by prepositional phrases with for. The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since.

•I've been here ever since I came to Paris. We've known this man for years.

He has had a beard for as long as I can remember.

The Present Perfect Durative is preferred to Present Perfect Progressive in negative sentences when it is the action itself that is completely negated (the Inclusive Present Perfect Tense).

•I haven't driven for a long time.

I haven't worn evening dresses for ages!

2.It may also express an action that began in the past, continued for some time and has just stopped (the Present Perfect Resultative).

•I have been so anxious to meet you. We haven't seen each other for years!

3.Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the Present

Perfect and the Past Indefinite when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past, the Past Indefinite should be used. If the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it, the Present Perfect is used.

•'I have lived like this for two years,' he said, 'and I can't stand it any more.

•I teach history at a secondary school. I went to University here for four years and got a degree.

•Yesterday he waited for her for two hours but she didn't turn up.

THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

I. The Present Perfect Progressive is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Present Perfect and the ing-form of the notional verb (Participle I).

•I have been working. She has been reading.

In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject.

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•Have you been working? Has she been reading?

In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

•We have not been reading. They have not been working.

In spoken English the contracted forms are used: I've, he's, she's, it's, we've, you've, they've, hasn't, and haven't.

II. This tense is found in present time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspapers and radio reports, lectures and letters. It has two uses — the Present Perfect Progressive Durative (Inclusive) and the Present Perfect Progressive Resultative (Exclusive).

1. The Present Perfect Progressive (Inclusive) serves to express an action in progress which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it. In this case either the starting point of the action or the period of time during which it has been in progress is usually indicated.

•It has been raining ever since midnight, and it's still drizzling. I've been writing since morning and so I shall soon stop.

All these forms are translated into Russian by the Present Tense, imperfective (дождь идет, я пишу).

2. The Present Perfect Progressive (Exclusive) serves to express an action which was in progress quite recently and which in one way or another affects the present situation, explains the state of things at the present moment. In this case, as a rule, there is no indication of time.

•Don't tell your mother what I've been saying.

I've been talking to your boyfriend and 1 like him. Come in! I've been looking for you.

The Present Perfect Progressive can be used with some verbs which are normally not used in the progressive forms so as to express great intensity of feelings in highly emotional contexts.

•I've been loving you ever since I first saw you!

Really, I've been wanting to come, I've been dreaming about it! We've been feeling so lonely of late!

The Past Tenses (the Simple Past, the Past Progressive, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Progressive)

THE SIMPLE PAST

I. The Simple Past is a synthetic form, built up by a change in the word itself.

• I worked. He sang. They won.

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But the interrogative and the negative forms are built up analytically, by means of the auxiliary verb to do in the Simple Past and the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to.

• — Did you work? — We did not work.

—Did they do it? — No, they did not do it.

II. The Simple Past is used to express:

1.a single action completed in the past and in no way connected with the present. The time of the action is mostly given or may be implied in the situation.

• He left yesterday. They married in 1990. We met in Germany.

Note: The Simple Past, never the Present Perfect, is used in questions beginning with When, because it implies a certain moment in the past. The answer can be either in the Simple Past or in the Present Perfect, depending on the situation:

•— When did you see him?

—I saw him two days ago. / I have just seen him.

2. a succession of actions in narration to describe the development of events.

•I went up the stairs. I bathed. I changed. Then I went downstairs and cooked and served dinner for three. Then I entertained Mr. Stent. Then I wished him a very good night.

Sometimes you can come across the cases of the so called 'historic presents,' when in past-time contexts present tenses are used to make the narration more vivid.

•Just imagine what happened to me yesterday! I came into the kitchen and what do you think I see? My cat is sitting on the table and eating the fish. And she looks so innocent that I have no heart to say anything.

3. an action which occupied a whole period of time which is now over. The period of time is usually indicated in the sentence by means of adverbial phrases with the preposition for or during.

•He worked hard for ten years until he was lucky, I walked in the park for twenty minutes yesterday. We stayed in the garden for a long time.

4. facts; habitual, recurrent actions in the past.

•She lived alone in London, and saw no one except me. Every day we got up at seven and went to bed at eleven.

Note: In English there are special means of expressing a permanent recurrent action in the past. They are: used to + infinitive and would + infinitive (the latter is typical of literary style).

•I liked reading in the garden. I used to take out a deck-chair, sit under one of the apple-trees and read.

•We used to play in the garden and Mother would make the cheese cakes for lunch.

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