Гос филология / Гос филология / 31. The main division of expressive means

The main division of expressive means. Lexical means of expressiveness.

- expressive means

- stylistic devices

Expressive means are those ling.forms and properties, that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic (expressive). This can be found on all levels: phonetic, graphical, morphological, syntactic and lexical. We find them in a l-ge as a system.

EM and SD have a lot of in common; but they are not completely synonimous. All SD belong to EM, but not all EM are SD (“girly, pigy” are EM, but not SD)

A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and structural features are blanded so, that it represents a generilized pattern. A SD is a concious and international intensification, which always conveys additional inf-n and is a char-c of the l-ge in action (speech) (The night has swallowed him up – metaphor).

EM have a greater degree of predictability than SD, which are only slightly or are not at all predictable. Em are means of intensification commonly used in speech.

The whole stock of stylistical revelant (значимый) l. means is traditionally subdivided into 2 classes: - tropes

- figures of speech

The terms and class-n have come to us from ancient rhetoric schools.

Tropes - (“tponos” – Greek) a turn, a change from literal to figurative m-ng. A deviation from logical usage to gain special effect.

Figures – (lat. “figura”) comprises two dif.spheres and fall into:

• figures of construction or schemes (parallel constr-ns, anaphora, epiphora, conversion) are deviations from regular syntactical pattern to create some special effect;

• figures of diction (alliteration, rhythm)

The distinction b/w them is sometimes obscure. There are a number of cases, when they are closely linked and tend to overlap (litotes, climax, zeugma).

A somewhat diff-t class-n, which is widely spread nowadays is called a Functional classification. Accord.to it all styl-ly relevant EM fall into figurative means (изобразит.ср-ва), which embrase all kinds of the trnsfer of m-ng. It may not be only: – w-ds, but

- w-combinations

- phonemes

- rhythm

- syntact.str-res

Expressive l-ge means, which don’t evoke images, but intensify the expressive power of an utterance through special arrangement of the w-ds and other means.

Modern classification. The present state of development of liguistics allows to give a new interpretation of accumulated (накопленные) facs.

Thus many ling-ts (Paulo, Arnold, Ahmonova) refer tropes to the paradigmatic level, because they may be regarded as paradigmatic units in the mind of the reader, because they may be based on the associations of a chosen w-d with others close to it in the m-ng (She is a beutiful loli of the valley). Schemes or figures of construction are regarded as syntagmatic unit, because they are based on the lineal char-re of speech on the influence of context (I kissed thee ere (before) I killed thee – Shakespeare).

Some ling-ts (Galperin) suggest one more stylistical opposition – the opposition b/w traditional sifnifiers ( and that is b/w normally fixed in the l-ge and doesn’t depend on context) and situational signifiers (that is what exist only in certain context: b/w usual and occasional).

This styl.oppsition is closely connected with the problem of the norm and its deviasions.

The stylistic approach to dif.aspects of a l-ge (voc-ry, grammar, sounds) determines the subdivision of stylistics into:

• the styl.lexicology

• the styl.semasiology

• the styl.grammar (syntax...)

• the styl.phonetics

Figures of const-n are studied in the styl. syntax; figures of dicion. – in the styl.phonetics; tropes are the subject of the styl.semasiology.

Semasiology is the science of m-ng and change of m-ng. The styl.semasiology is the science of styl-ly relevant change of m-ng. It studies expressive means on the basis of semantic interrelations and changes of m-ng in w-ds, w-combinations or sent-ces.

In tropes transferred m-ng is practically the interrelation b/w 2 types of lex.m-ng:

• dictionary (logical, direct)

• contextual contextual m-ng of the w-d is set up (противопост.) against the direct m-ng (Some of books should be tested, some – swallowed and very few – chewed and dejested)

3)DISCRIPTIVE TROPES include:

- metaphoric

- metonimic

- mixed groups

All these gropes have one feature in common. The expressive means are built on the presence of some common features of the objects, described and some others, known to the reader.

Two objects or ideas may be associated in 2 ways: by similarity or contiguity. Metaphoric group is based on the 1^st type – similarity- metaphor, simile; metonimic is based on contiguity; - metonymy, synecdoche, the mixed includes troes based bth on metaphor and metonymy.

1. "Ancient"/ traditional classification. The whole stock of stylistically relevant language means is traditionally subdivided into 2 classes: tropes and figures of speech.

TROPES comes from Greek τροπος which means a turn, a change of meaning from literal to figurative, a transference of meaning.

FIGURES OF SPEECH:

comprise two groups - figures of construction and figures of diction. Figures of construction are deviations from the regular syntactical pattern, the use of construction aimed at intensifying the meaning. Figures of diction deal with sound effects.

2. Functional classification. According to it all stylistically relevant language means are divided into figurative and expressive language means (изобразительные и выразительные).

FIGURATIVE language means embrace all kinds of the transference of meaning. They include not only words as in tropes, but word combinations and even phonemes - everything that evokes images. (E.g. rhythm - E.Poe "Eldorado") EXPRESSIVE language means are those which intensify the power of an utterance through special arrangement of the language material, especially through syntactical structures, but also all types of intensifiers, alliteration etc.

3. Level-oriented classification. It is simply organized and very detailed. Galperin subdivides expressive means and stylistic devices into:

a) phonetic b) lexical c) syntactical.

The terms expressive means and stylistic devices are not completely synonymous. Not all expressive means are stylistic devices, E.g. pauses, logical stress, diminutive suffixes, intensifiers, emphatic constructions "If only...!" etc. A stylistic device is a generalized literary model employed for an expressive purpose.

Classifications of tropes

Descriptive Tropes	Tropes Expressing Relations
A. Tropes based on comparison 1) simile 2) metaphor 3) personification	A. Relations of identity 1) synonyms 2) periphrasis & euphemism.
B. Tropes based on constant connections (contiguity) 1) metonymy 2) synecdoche	B. Relations of contrast 1) antithesis 2) oxymoron 3) irony
C. Mixed group 1) allegory 2) antonomasia 3) epithet	C. Relations of difference 1) climax (gradation) 2) bathos 3) hyperbole 4) litotes

Zeugma and pun - a marginal case between lexical and syntactic devices.

Descriptive tropes

DT include metaphoric, metonymic and mixed groups. All of them have one feature in common: they are built on the presence of some common features in the objects described and some other objects. Two objects or ideas may be associated by similarity or contiguity. Metaphoric group is based on the former, metonymic - on the latter, mixed group is based on both.