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from the 2014 report were unchanged for adverse events that included rare (used generi-
cally here) observations of anaphylaxis in adults and children, and febrile seizures and idio-
pathic thrombocytopenic purpura in children. Further, there was no increased risk of
adverse events identified for vaccines currently recommended for pregnant women or their
birthed children. There was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions about some other rare
potential adverse events.
While very rare (<1 in 10,000), anaphylaxis cases for all vaccines studied in 2016 was 1.31
(95% CI, 0.90e1.84) per million vaccine doses (MacNeil, 2016). Overall rates observed for
COVID-19 vaccines as of 2023 (Boufidou, 2023) were 0.04 per million doses (95% CI
0.03e0.06/million doses) for anaphylactic reaction and 0.02 per million doses (95% CI
0.01e0.03/million doses) for anaphylactic shock, respectively, based on US (Vaccine Adverse
Event Reporting System, VAERS) and EU data reporting. Examples of very rare adverse ef-
fects of special interest (AESI) for COVID-19 vaccines in the European Union and the Euro-
pean Economic Area (European Medicines Agency; February 15, 2024) were as follows:
Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) has been reported in less than 1 in 10,000 people (very
rare) receiving the COVID-19 vaccines Jcovden (COVID-19 Vaccine Janssen) and Vaxzevria
(COVID-19 Vaccine AstraZeneca). Myocarditis and pericarditis have very rarely been re-
ported (<1 in 10,000) in people vaccinated with Comirnaty (Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 Vac-
cine) and Spikevax (COVID-19 Vaccine Moderna) as well as at unknown frequency for
Jcovden (previously COVID-19 Vaccine Janssen) and Nuvaxovid. The rare sometimes fatal
syndrome, thrombotic thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS), was reported (Buoninfante,
2022) for the adenovirus-vectored vaccines Vaxzevria (3.2e16.1 cases per million doses),
JCOVDEN (1.7e3.7 cases per million doses), and Convidencia (Cansino Ad5-nCoV vaccine;
0.0081 cases per million doses). A global study in 99 million vaccinated individuals from 10
sites across eight countries (Faksova, 2024) confirmed previously identified very rare safety
signals for myocarditis, pericarditis, Guillain-Barré syndrome, and TTS, and suggested other
potential safety signals that warrant further study. The two serious adverse events following
COVID-19 vaccines currently used in the US are anaphylaxis and myocarditis or pericarditis
(CDC, February 12, 2024).
It is notable that a side effect is reported as very rare, i.e., <1 in 10,000, even if it occurs in 1
in a million, 1 in 10 million, or 1 in 100 millio n, so does not communicate the true risk of a
serious adverse event to nonexperts who do not evaluate pertinent scientific literature and
specific studies.
There are country-sp ecific mechanisms for capturing postvaccination adverse events for
determinations of association or causality that vary widely, often based on country wealth
status. Because of the unprecedented global vaccine development and implementation cam-
paigns in response to COVID-19, there is the potential to advance the science of vaccine
safety ( Top, 2022). For example: Top et al. (2022) describe the International Network of Spe-
cial Immunization Services (INSIS, https://insisvaccine.org) “that seeks to build capacity
for A(dverse) E(ffects) F(ollowing) I(mmunization) inve stigation in both high-income and
low-middle-income countries. Through partnerships with local specialists, public health
agencies, and re search networks, INSIS aims to increase vaccine confidence by informing
regulatory and policy decision-making regarding the benefit-risk assessment of vaccines.
”
6. Introduction to vaccines and adjuvants216
II. Vaccines
The Global Vaccine Data Network (GVDN) “ uses big data to a ssess vaccine safety and
effectiveness across large and diverse populations around the world and over time”
(https://www.globalvaccinedatanetwork.org/). The WHO Global Vaccine Safety Blueprint
“sets out indicators that aim to ensure that all countries have at least a minimal capacity to
ensure vaccine safety” ( https://www.who.int/initiatives/the-global-vaccine-safety-initia-
tive). The Vaccine Monitoring Platform (VMP) has been formed as a joint initiative of the
European CDC and the EMA “for strengthening the continuous monitoring of the safety
and effectiveness of vaccines in the European Union“ (EMA, December 8, 2022). The US
has the VAERS, a national vaccine safety surveillan ce program cosponsored by the U S
FDA and CDC for the detection of possible adverse events that occur after the administra-
tion of US licensed vaccines.
The misinterpretation of side effect reporting has led to rampant misinformation on the
adverse effect s of COVID-19 and other vaccines. Because vaccine hesitancy and refusal
have the potential to undermine decades of successful disease management (CDC, September
15, 2022), several dedicated programs to train healthcare workers on how to address peoples’
concerns have been established by Harvard, Columbia, Stanford, Johns Hopkins, the Amer-
ican Congress of Obstetricians & Gynecologists, NIH and WHO (Google, 2023). Community
engagement via the use of “vaccine champions ” (influencing the influencers) has had success
in addressing vaccine hesitancy, along with “communication campaigns and evidence-based
interpersonal communication” (Tuckerman, 2022). The CDC’s “COVID-19 Vaccination Field
Guide: 12 Strategies for Your Community” (November 29, 2022) is focused on the pandemic
vaccines, but the principles and techniques are broadly applicable. Although the outreach
strategies are focused on clinical safety, nonclinical scientists can play a role by publishing
papers on proof-of-concept and safety assessment strategies and results, but perhaps more
importantly by engaging with individuals and groups who may lack awareness of 1. the reg-
ulatory requirements that precede entry into clinical testing, 2. the rigorous clinical testing in
large numbers of participants, and after eventual commercialization 3. the continual pharma-
covigilance monitoring for each vaccine, as well as 4. the periodic reviews of safety data
across vaccines.
The next two chapters, by Plitnick and Wolf, respectively, lay out the requirements and
strategies for the nonclinical safety assessment of vaccines and adjuvants that are pivotal
to entering into clinical testing and supporting continued development to licensure.
Summary
Based on scientific and technological advances in the discovery and development of vac-
cines and adjuvants, the future holds great promise fo r improvements for existing vaccines,
for the development of new preventive vaccines for unmet medical needs, and for therapeutic
vaccines to treat a plethora of chronic diseases. Nonclinical safety assessment strategies, the
regulatory environment, and guidelines are evolving in parallel to streamline the develop-
ment of next-generation products. The title of a paper by Rappuoli et al., “Vaccines: An
achievement of civilization, a human right, our health insurance for the future” (2019b), is
an apt ending for this introductor y chapter.
Summary 217
II. Vaccines
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