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Index 391
neuroprostheses, 229–230,
378–379
neurotoxins, 220–221
neurotransmitters
balancing inputs, 109–110
combining, 84
conventional, 82–83
dened, 82
ending responses, 94
evolution of nervous system, 9
gated ion channels, 69
ionotropic receptors, 82, 89–91
metabotropic receptors, 82,
92–94
monoamines, 112–115
neuropeptides, 84, 115–116
overview, 13
purines, 110–111
release of, 86–88
small molecule, synthesizing
with, 83
transmission mechanisms, 86
unconventional, 83, 84
neurulation, 46–48
nicotine, 356, 359
nicotinic receptors, 102
nociceptors, 163, 262, 266
Nodes of Ranvier, 79
non-associative learning, 289
noncovalent bonds, 24–25
nonpolar covalent bonds, 25
non-REM (NREM) sleep, 184
nonvesicular release, 88
nootropics, 358–359
norepinephrine, 113
notochord, 45
NTDs (neural tube defects),
46, 216
nucleotides, 25
nucleus ambiguus, 169
nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS),
168, 281
nutrition, impact on brain
function, 358–359
O
obsessive compulsive disorder
(OCD), 356, 368
occipital lobe, 17, 197, 245–247,
324–325
odorants, 273, 274
olfaction. See smell system
olfactory bulb, 272, 273–274
olfactory cortex, 274
olfactory glomeruli, 273–274
olfactory receptor cells, 272–273
olfactory tubercle, 275
oligodendrocytes, 13, 57–58, 129
operant conditioning, 290–291
operculum, 191, 282
opioids, 267
optic chiasm, 243
optic radiation, 246
optic tracts, 244–245
optical recording, 375
optogenetics, 377
optokinetic reex (OKN), 259
orbitofrontal cortex, 141–142,
204, 207–209, 367–368
Organ of Corti, 253–254
organelles, 29–31
organs, cholinergic neurons
in, 103
oscillatory brain activity, 182
osmotic pressure, 37
otosclerosis, 257
outer ear, 251–252
oxidative phosphorylation, 29
oxytocin, 116
P
Pacinian corpuscles, 264
pain
attitude and mood, inuence
on, 266
cortical areas for, 271–272
easing with distraction, 267
endogenous opioids, reducing
with, 267
insula and, 191
loss of perception, 268
reacting to complex aspects
of, 266
relieving, 116
reticular formation, 185
paleocortex, 48, 187
papillae, 278
parallel bers, 149, 317–318
parasympathetic system, 18,
176–178
parietal lobe
consciousness and, 368–369
overview, 17, 197
sensory processing in, 324–325
visual input, streaming to,
247–250
Parkinson’s disease (PD),
223–224, 313
parvocellular (P) cells, 240
passive touch, 262
Pavlov, Ivan, 289–290
PCC (posterior cingulate cortex),
142, 370
perceptual representation
system, 292
perforant pathway, 296
periamygdaloid cortex, 275
pericytes, 13
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
myelination in, 13
neurons and glia, production
of, 59
overview, 10–11
somatosensory system,
162–165
support for, 14
peripheral neuropathy, 225, 268
permeability, membrane, 64, 65
phase locking, 254
phenotypes, 26, 39–40
pheromones, 181, 277
phospholipids, 32–35
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392 Neurobiology For Dummies
phosphorylation, 29, 93
photopic vision, 235
photoreceptor cells
adaptation, 237
distribution in retina, 237–238
input, 235–236
light and transduction cascade,
236–238
output, 238–243
pia mater, 58, 155
pinna, 252
piriform cortex, 275
placebo eect, 267
plasticity, synaptic. See synaptic
plasticity
plexus, 158
PMC (premotor cortex), 137,
139–140, 152, 310, 315–316
PNS. See peripheral nervous
system
Poggio, Tomaso, 98
point-to-point (wiring)
transmission, 85
polar covalent bonds, 24
polio, 125–126, 222
pons, 165, 169–170
population code, 138
posterior cingulate cortex (PCC),
142, 370
postsynaptic responses,
integrating, 83–84
postsynaptic target, exciting,
90–91
posttraumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), 357, 368
potassium ions, 24, 62–63, 67,
73–77, 90–91
prefrontal cortex
commanding with, 312
coordinating movement,
140–142
goals, setting and
accomplishing, 204–205
limbic system, 193
making decisions, 205–207
overview, 21
preganglionic neurons, 103,
157, 177
premotor cortex (PMC), 137,
139–140, 152, 310, 315–316
presynaptic boutons, 85
presynaptic terminus, 84
primary auditory cortex (A1),
255–256
primary motor cortex (M1), 137,
139–140
priming, 292
procedural learning, 148
procedural memory, 145, 288,
291, 301, 314–315
processing speed, 335–336
proprioception, 129–130, 131,
163, 268
prosencephalon, 46
proteins, 28–29, 34, 35–36
proton (H+) pump, 64
pruriceptors, 262, 265–266
psychoactive substances,
naturally occurring, 358
psychoplastogens, 114, 352–353
psylocibin, 353
PTSD (posttraumatic stress
disorder), 357, 368
pulvinar, 150, 370
purines, 83, 110–111
Purkinje cells, 149, 317–318
pyramidal tracts, 136, 164
R
rabies, 222
radial glial cells (RGCs),
48–51, 201
raphe nuclei, 185, 350
RAS (reticular activating
system), 186
receptor potential, 264
recessive traits, 40
re-entry theory, 338
reexes, 124, 129–132, 308–310
reexive behavior, 333
refractory period, 76–77
regulated secretion, 36
relative refractory period, 76
relay cells, 327
REM (rapid eye movement)
sleep, 183, 300
replication of DNA, 25–26
repolarizing phase of action
potentials, 75
RER (rough endoplasmic
reticulum), 35–36
residues, amino acid, 28, 34
resistance, 65, 70–71
resolution, neocortex, 203
respiratory centers, 169
resting membrane potentials,
62, 66–68
reticular activating system
(RAS), 186
reticular formation, 19, 167,
185–186, 364
reticular zones, 328
retina
anatomy of eye, 234
movement of images on,
234–235
neural convergence, 98–99
photoreceptor distribution in,
237–238
projections to thalamus and
visual cortex, 243–245
visual system development, 57
retinal ganglion cells, 239,
240–241, 242
retinal pigment epithelial
cells, 238
retinitis pigmentosa (RP), 249
retrieval, memory, 300, 302
Rett syndrome, 343
reward processing, 190–193
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Index 393
RGCs (radial glial cells),
48–51, 201
rhombencephalon, 47
rhythmic motor patterns, 124
ribbon synapse, 238
ribosomal RNA, 27
ribosomes, 28
right hemisphere, 209–213, 332
Ritalin, 115, 345
Rizzolatti, Giocomo, 319
RNA transcription, 26–27
rods, 98–99, 235, 237, 238, 242
rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), 35–36
RP (retinitis pigmentosa), 249
Runi endings, 264
S
saccadic eye movements, 151,
170–171, 234–235
sacral nerves, 160
salience network, 370
saltatory conduction, 79
salty taste, 278–280
satiety, 282, 283–284
savant syndrome, 334
schizophrenia, 354–356
Schwann cells, 13, 14, 129
scotopic vision, 235
second messengers, 92, 93
secretory pathway, 36
secretory vesicles, 36, 88
section planes, 197–198
secundary motor cortex, 137,
139–140
semantic memory, 294
sensory decussation, 169
sensory functions
brainstem, 167–170
spinal cord, 163
sensory ganglia, 14
sensory memory, 288, 292–293
sensory neurons, 11
sensory processing, 324–325
serotonin, 90, 91, 113–114
SES (spinal cord stimulation),
229–230
sex dierences, 213–214
Shirin, Richard, 206, 287–288
short-term memory, 206,
293–294
shunting inhibition, 91, 108–109
side chains, 28
single photon confocal
imaging, 373
sinoatrial node, 121
size principle, 128
skeletal muscle
cholinergic neurons in
contraction, 102–103
controlling contraction,
128–129
dened, 121
exercise and aging, 133–134
fast- and slow-twitch, 122–123
general discussion, 121–122
molecular events of
contraction, 123–127
skin, 163, 262–264. See also
somatosensory system
sleep, 182–184, 299–300
slow rolling eye movements
(SREMs), 184
slow wave sleep (SWS), 300
slow-twitch (Type I) bers, 122,
128, 133
SMA (supplementary motor
area), 137, 139–140, 152,
310, 315–316
small molecule
neurotransmitters,
synthesizing with, 83
smart drugs, 358–359
smell system
damage to, 276–277
avor, perception of, 282–283
internal chemoreceptors, 284
olfactory bulb, 272, 273–274
olfactory receptor cells,
272–273
overview, 20
pheromones, 277
projections to cortex and
amygdala, 274–276
smooth muscles, 120
SNc (substantia nigra pars
compacta), 145
social intelligence, 333–334
sodium ions, 24, 62–65, 67,
73–77, 86, 90–91
sodium-potassium pump, 63,
67, 77
somatic motor neurons, 124
somatic reexes, 364–365
somatic system, 11
somatosensory receptor cells,
262–266
somatosensory system
cortex, processing in, 269–272
cortical maps, 56–57
localizing touch, 264
mechanoreceptors, 262
overview, 20
pain, responding to, 266–268,
271–272
proprioception, 268
sensory transduction in
mechanoreceptors, 264
skin structure, 263
spinal cord in, 162–165
spinal processing and cranial
nerves, 268–269
temperature and itch,
responding to, 265
thalamus, projecting
information to, 269
touch versus pressure, 263
sour taste, 278–280
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394 Neurobiology For Dummies
spaced repetition, 305
spatial memory, 294–295,
300–301
specication of cells, 45
spectral sensitivities, 241, 243
speech, 142. See also language
speech neuroprosthesis, 230
spike rate coding, 77
spina bida, 216
spinal cord
autonomic output,
regulating, 180
central pattern generators,
161–162
functions of, 153–154
gray and white matter,
155–159
injuries, 228–229
input and eectors, 160–161
overview, 18
protecting, 154–155
segments, 157–158
somatosensory system,
162–165
spinal nerves, 157, 159–160
spinal reexes, 129–132, 161,
364–365
spinal cord stimulation (SES),
229–230
spinal disks, 155
spinal nerves, 157, 159–160
spinal processing, 268–269
spinal reexes, 129–132, 161,
364–365
spinocerebellum, 147, 148
spinothalamic tract, 269
spiral ganglion neurons,
253–254
split-brain surgery, 213
SREMs (slow rolling eye
movements), 184
stereocilia, 253
stimulants, 359
stirrup, 252
STN (subthalamic nucleus), 143
stress, as risk factor for
depression, 351
stretch reex, 130
striated muscles, 120–122
striatum, 143–145, 192, 314
strokes, 226–227
subcortical areas, 17
subgenual cingulate, 350
substance-related
syndromes, 346
substantia nigra, 143, 171
substantia nigra pars compacta
(SNc), 145
subthalamic nucleus (STN), 143
sulci, 17
Summers, Larry, 213
superior colliculus, 99, 151,
170–171
superior olive, 171, 255
superior temporal lobe, 255–256
supertasters, 281
supplementary motor area
(SMA), 137, 139–140, 152,
310, 315–316
sweet taste, 278–280
SWS (slow wave sleep), 300
sympathetic system, 18,
176–178
synapses
changing membrane
potentials, 69
neurotransmission, 37
number of, 9
overview, 13
strengthening, 56
synaptic renement, 55
synaptogenesis, 54–55
synaptic cleft, 82, 85
synaptic plasticity
additional mechanisms,
298–301
basal ganglia and, 315
depression and, 351–352
developmental/mental
disorders and, 341–342
discovery of, 297
general discussion, 56, 97
in glutamate synapses, 107
hippocampal circuitry and, 367
in implicit memory, 301
LTP, 297–298
serotonin and, 114
synaptic transmission. See also
chemical synapses; synaptic
plasticity
acetylcholine, 101–104
balancing inputs in, 109–110
circuits, functions of neurons
in, 97–100
electrical synapses, 82–83
GABA, 107–109
glutamate, 104–107
glycine, 107–109
graded potentials, 70–71
monoamines, 112–115
neuropeptides, 115–116
neurotransmitter gated
channels, 69
overview, 68–69, 81
postsynaptic responses,
integrating, 83–84
purines, 110–111
synaptic potentials,
integrating, 71–73
synaptic vesicles, 88
synaptogenesis, 54–57
synaptotagmin, 87–88
T
taste system
basic tastes, 278–279
coding for taste, 280
feeling full, 283–284
internal chemoreceptors, 284
loss of taste, 283
overview, 20
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Index 395
projecting information to
brain, 281–283
supertasters, 281
taste receptors, 277–278
transduction, 279–280
umami, 280
tau, 32
TBI (traumatic brain injury),
227–228
tDCS (transcranial direct current
stimulation), 376–377
technological advancements
in brain imaging, 375–376
cultured slices, cells, and
organoids, 372
electrical brain stimulation,
376–377
in electrical recordings, 373
genetic manipulation of neural
cells, 375
microelectrode arrays,
377–378
in microscopy, 372–373
neurogenetic techniques, 374
neuroprostheses, 378–379
optogenetics, 377
overview, 371
telencephalon, 46–47
temperature receptors, 265
temporal lobe
auditory processing in,
255–256
overview, 17, 197
sensory processing in, 324–325
visual input, streaming to,
247–250
teratogen, 59
thalamic relay neurons, 245–246
thalamus
auditory system, role in,
243–247, 254–255
basal ganglia thalamus
loop, 369
consciousness and, 368–369
coordinating movement,
150–151
frontal eye elds, 151
pulvinar, 150
relation to neocortex, 326–329
reticular areas, 150–151
somatosensory system, role
in, 269
superior colliculus, 151
synaptic renement, 57
taste system, role in, 281–282
thalamic relay to cortex, 366
thalamic reticular areas, 186
theory of mind, 320
thermoreceptors, 163, 262,
265–266
thoracic nerves, 159
thoracolumbar division, 177
thresholds, 73–76
tinnitus, 258
tongue, taste receptors on,
277–278
Tononi, Giulio, 338
TORCH complex, 217
totipotent stem cells, 27, 44
touch, sense of. See
somatosensory system
transcranial direct current
stimulation (tDCS), 376–377
transcranial magnetic
stimulation (TMS), 354, 376
transcription, 26–28, 51–52
transducin, 237
transection, 228
transfer RNA, 27
translation, 28–29
transmembrane current, 78
transmembrane proteins, 34,
35–36
transmembrane spanning
domain (TSD), 34
transporters, targeting, 114
traumatic brain injury (TBI),
227–228
trisomy 21, 343–344
two-photon microscopy, 373
Type I (slow-twitch) bers, 122,
128, 133
Type II (fast-twitch) bers, 122,
128, 133
U
umami, 278–280
V
vagus nucleus, 169
vascularization in CNS, 14
vector, 42
ventral root, 157
ventral stream, 247, 248
ventral tegmental area (VTA),
171–172, 350
ventricles, 13
vertebrae, 154
vestibular system, 161, 260
vestibulocerebellum, 147
vestibulo-ocular reex
(VOR), 259
viral infections, 222–223, 346
visceral reexes, 179
visceral sensory neurons,
178–179
visual area 1 (V1), 246–247
visual cortex, 243–245
visual system
agnosias, 250
anatomy of eye, 234
asymmetries, 332
blindness, 249
color vision, 241–243
development of, 57
light and transduction cascade,
236–238
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396 Neurobiology For Dummies
visual system (continued)
occipital lobe, input from
thalamus, 245–247
overview, 20
photoreceptor output,
238–243
phototransduction, 235–236
pooling sensory input, 98–99
retina, movement of images
on, 234–235
retinal projections to thalamus
and visual cortex, 243–245
right hemisphere
processing, 211
temporal/parietal lobe,
streaming to, 247–250
voltage-gated channels, 73–77,
79, 86
volume transmission, 85
voluntary movements
basal ganglia, role of, 143–145
cerebellum, role of, 145–149
extrapyramidal tracts, 136–137
knowing who is in control,
151–152
motor cortex, directing with,
137–138
muscle contractions, 121, 124
prefrontal cortex, role of,
140–142
pyramidal tracts, 136
supplementary motor area,
role of, 139–140
thalamus, role of, 150–151
vomeronasal organ, 277
VOR (vestibulo-ocular
reex), 259
VTA (ventral tegmental area),
171–172, 350
W
Wernicke’s aphasia, 331
Wernicke’s area, 210–211, 256,
330–331
white matter, 155–159, 198,
199, 324
Williams syndrome, 343
wiring (point-to-point)
transmission, 85
withdrawal reex, 364
working memory, 20, 190, 206,
208, 293–294
Z
zygote, 43, 44
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About the Authors
Frank Amthor is an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the University of
Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). He obtained his undergraduate degree in bioelec-
tronic engineering from Cornell University and his PhD in biomedical engineering
from Duke University. Frank was an NIH-supported researcher for more than 20
years. He was also supported by the U.S.Oce of Naval Research, the Sloan Foun-
dation, and the Eyesight Foundation. His research is focused on retinal and central
visual processing and neural prostheses. He has published more than
100 journal articles, book chapters, and conference abstracts.
Frank’s career has been devoted to understanding complex neural computations
in retinal ganglion cells, the rst locus in the visual system of highly specic and
nonlinear analyses such as motion and directional selectivity. The investigative
techniques Frank has used include virtually the entire suite of single-cell neuro-
physiological techniques, including single-cell extracellular recording, sharp
electrode intracellular recording and staining, patch clamp recording, optical
imaging with both calcium and potentiometric dyes, dual electrode recording,
and, most recently, microelectrode array recording.
Frank has taught extensively on the nervous system, from genetics and ion
channels, to neural function, to gross anatomy, in courses such as Behavioral
Neuroscience, Cognitive Neuroscience, Perception, Sensory Information Processing,
Cognitive Psychology, and Vision Science. He has also written Neuroscience For
Dummies (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).
Anne Theibert is a Professor in the Neurobiology Department in the University of
Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) Heersink School of Medicine. She completed her
PhD in biological chemistry and postdoctoral fellowship in neuroscience, both at
Johns Hopkins University. After joining the faculty at UAB, Anne ran a govern-
ment and foundation-funded research program for 18 years. As a research scien-
tist she mentored graduate and medical students and taught in graduate and
medical school courses.
Anne’s training and research expertise is in cellular and molecular neurobiology.
Her laboratory research used genetic, molecular biology, and biochemical
techniques, coupled with cell and slice culture to investigate early neuronal and
synaptic development. Her laboratory studied downstream genes in neuronal sig-
naling pathways, several of which were identied as autism susceptibility genes.
She has published more than 100 research articles, book chapters, and meeting
abstracts. Together with Drs. Frank Amthor, David Standaert, and Erik Roberson,
she co-wrote and co-edited The Essentials of Modern Neuroscience (McGraw Hill).
https://t.me/med1917
In 2009 she worked closely with colleagues to establish the UAB Undergraduate
Neuroscience Program (UNP). She is a course director and teaches undergraduates
and masters students in the UNP courses titled “Synapses, Neurons, and Brains”
and “From Systems to Cognitive Neuroscience.” She serves as co-course director
of graduate developmental neuroscience.
Dedication
Frank: To my wonderful wife, Becky, and to Philip, Rachel, and Sarah, for being
the world’s best kids and now the world’s hope for the future. I also dedicate this
to their children, my grandchildren Catherine, John, Anna, Mia, and Ben. Thanks
also to my parents, Agnes and Ryder, and my stepfather, Jim, and to all my teach-
ers who thought I was someone worth investing time in.
Anne: To my husband Richard and our daughters, Leslie, Elizabeth, and Jillian,
who have always given me encouragement and those enjoyable life experiences
worth living for. To our grandchildren Chase, Scarlett, Connor, William, Evelyn,
and Grace Anne, who have made the past eight years incredibly busy and mean-
ingful. To my mentors, Skip Waechter, Peter Devreotes, and Sol Snyder, who
taught me how to think critically, love scientic research, and enjoy writing
about it.
Authors’ Acknowledgments
This book owes its existence to our agent, so special thanks to Grace Freedson. We
also thank the acquisitions editor, Alice Sparrow, the project editor, Chad R.Siev-
ers, and the technical editor, Professor Christianne Strang.
Publisher’s Acknowledgments
Acquisitions Editor: Alicia Sparrow
Project Editor: Chad R.Sievers
Copy Editor: Chad R.Sievers
Technical Editor:
Christianne E.Strang, PhD, ATR-BC
Production Editor: Pradesh Kumar
Cover Image: © Indian Creations/Shutterstock
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