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Index 381
Index
A
absolute refractory period, 76
ACC (anterior cingulate cortex),
142, 369–370
accommodation, 234
acetylcholine, 83, 90–92,
101–104, 126
acquired brain injuries, 217
actin, 127
action potentials
conducting, 78–79
ganglion cells, 241
gated ion channels, 69
generating, 73–78
neural coding, 78
neurotransmitter release, 87
overview, 13, 39, 62
Purkinje cells, 318
refractory period, 76–77
thresholds, 73–76
active propagation, 73
active touch, 262
active transporters,
63, 64
AD (Alzheimer’s disease), 32,
104, 217, 304–305
adaptive behavior, 333
Adderall, 115, 345
adenosine, 110–111
adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
29, 30, 110–111
ADHD (attention decit
hyperactivity disorder), 115,
344–345
adrenergic receptors, 113
aerobic respiration, 30
aging, 60, 133–134, 257
aging related macular
degeneration (AMD), 249
agnosias, 250
alleles, 39–40
allocortex, 48, 187–188
alpha motor neurons, 125,
128–129, 133, 164
ALS (amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis), 221
alternate limb movement, 161
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), 32,
104, 217, 304–305
amacrine cells, 240
AMD (aging related macular
degeneration), 249
amino acids, 28–29, 34, 83
amnesia, 286, 303
amusia, 256
amygdala
amygdala orbitofrontal cortex
loop, 367–368
behaviors, controlling, 208–209
fear conditioning, 301
limbic system, 190–191
overview, 19
in smell system, 274–276
smell system, role in, 274–276
taste system, role in, 283
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS), 221
anabolic pathways, 25
analytical processing, 212
Anderson, John, 288
anosmia, 276
antagonistic muscle pairs, 123
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC),
142, 369–370
anterior olfactory nucleus, 275
anterior-posterior axis
formation, 45
anterograde amnesia, 286
anvil, 252
aphasia, 331
apoptosis, 53–54
approach-withdrawal
behavior, 209
aquaporins, 37
arachnoid mater, 58, 155
archicortex, 48, 187
arcuate nucleus, 169
ASD (autism spectrum
disorder), 345
aspartate, 90
association cortex, 363
associative learning, 289
astrocytes, 11, 13, 31, 32, 85
Atkinson, Richard, 206, 287–288
ATP (adenosine triphosphate),
29, 30, 110–111
ATP hydrolysis, 63, 64
attention, 104, 114
attention decit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), 115,
344–345
auditory association areas, 256
auditory canal, 252
auditory nerve, 253–254
auditory system
anatomy of, 251–253
channeling sounds to brain,
254–256
frequency transduction in
Organ of Corti, 253–254
hair cells, response to
vibrations, 253
hearing loss, 257–258
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382 Neurobiology For Dummies
auditory system (continued)
midbrain, role of, 171
overview, 20, 250
pons, role of, 170
transducing waves into
electrical responses, 253
autism spectrum disorder
(ASD), 345
autobiographical memory,
294–295
autoimmune disorders, 219
autonomic ganglia, 14
autonomic nervous system
control of, 179–184
inputting to, 178–179
limbic system, 187–193
overview, 176
parasympathetic system,
176–178
reticular formation, 185–186
sympathetic system, 176–178
visceral reexes, 179
autonomic system, 11
axes, formation of, 45
axial current, 78
axons
extending and guiding,
52–54
myelination, 57–59
overview, 9, 13
synaptic transmission, 81
synaptogenesis, 54–55
B
Baars, Bernard, 337
Baddeley, Alan, 206, 294
balance, 161, 170, 260
basal ganglia
basal ganglia thalamus
loop, 369
coordinating movement,
143–145
initiating action in, 313–315
learning with, 314–315
limbic system, 192
overview, 18
BCI (brain computer
interface), 230
behaviors, controlling, 116,
207–209
Bell’s palsy, 225
bilayers, lipid, 32–35
binocular disparity, 246
biosynthetic pathway, 36
bipolar cells, 239–240
bitter taste, 278–280
blastula stage, 44
blindness, 249
Bliss, Timothy, 297
blood osmolarity, 181
blood supply for CNS, 14
blood-brain barrier, 13, 14
bonds, 23–25
bone morphogenetic proteins
(BMPs), 46
brain, general discussion of,
15–17
brain computer interface
(BCI), 230
brain imaging, 375–376
brain injuries, 227–228
brain size, 198, 335
brain stem
anatomy and functions,
165–166
autonomic output,
regulating, 180
functions of, 153
medulla, 165, 167–169
midbrain, 165, 170–173
overview, 16, 18, 165
pons, 165, 169–170
brainwaves, 182, 313–314
Broca’s area, 142, 204, 210–211,
256, 330–331
Brodmann areas, 209,
246–247, 271
C
cable theory, 72
caeine, 359
calcium ions, 24, 65, 87–88
calcium pump, 64
capacitance, membrane,
70–71, 72
cardiac muscle, 121
cargoes, 36
catabolic pathways, 25
cataracts, 249
CBT (cognitive behavioral
therapy), 353
cells
anatomy, physiology, and
function, 37–38
cell body, 11
cell division, 43–44
cellular membranes, 32–37
cytoskeleton, 31–32
genes, 26–28
ions, bonds, and molecules,
23–25
membrane tracking, 35–37
metabolic pathways, 25
organelles, 29–31
protein translation, 28–29
replicating DNA, 25–26
cellular respiration, 30
central nervous system (CNS)
blood supply, 14
blood-brain barrier, 13
classication of neurons in, 11
cognitive functions, 20–21
control of motor systems,
18–19
functions of, 15–18
gray matter region in, 15
meninges, development of, 58
overview, 10
protection of, 14
sensory systems, 20
white matter region in, 15
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Index 383
central pattern generators
(CPGs), 161–162, 365–366
central sulcus, 196
centrosome, 30
cerebellar cortex, 146
cerebellar feed-forward system,
148–149
cerebellum
cerebellar circuits, 149,
366–367
cerebellar feed-forward
system, 148–149
coordinating movement,
145–149
divisions in, 146–147
limbic system, 193
location of, 145–146
motor and procedural
learning, 317
overview, 16
procedural learning,
147–148
cerebral cortex, 17, 21, 49, 52,
349, 366
cerebral palsy, 216–217
cerebrocerebellum,
146–147, 148
cerebrospinal uid (CSF), 14,
58–59, 156
cerebrovascular accidents,
225–226
cerebrum, 17, 46–47
cervical nerves, 159
Chalmers, David, 337
chemical bonds, 24
chemical synapses
acetylcholine, 101–104
balancing inputs in, 109–110
combining
neurotransmitters, 84
dened, 82
electrical synapses compared
to, 83
expanding views of,
84–85
GABA, 107–109
glutamate, 104–107
glycine, 107–109
metabotropic receptors,
92–94
monoamines, 112–115
neuropeptides, 84, 115–116
neurotransmitter release,
87–88
neurotransmitters, 82–83
overview, 69, 82
purines, 110–111
receptors, 89–91
returning to resting state,
94–95
small molecule
neurotransmitters,
synthesizing with, 83
transmission mechanisms, 86
unconventional
transmitters, 84
chemoreception, 284
chloride ions, 24, 62, 65, 67, 108
cholesterol, 34
cholinergic neurons, functions
of, 101–104
choroid plexus, 13
chromatographic theory of odor
perception, 274
chunking, 316
cilia, 253
cingulate cortex, 19, 142,
369–370
cingulate gyrus, 189
circadian rhythms, 182–184
circuits, neural. See neural
circuits
CIT (constraint-induced
therapy), 265
CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease),
224–225
classical conditioning,
289–290
CNG (cyclic nucleotide gated)
channel, 236
CNS. See central nervous system
coccygeal nerves, 160
coccygeal segments, 157
cochlea, 253, 254
cochlear inserts, 258
codon, 28
cognitive behavioral therapy
(CBT), 353
cognitive control, 312
cognitive distraction, 267
cognitive functions, 20–21,
321–322
cognitive maps, 300–301
color blindness, 242–243
color contrast, 242
color vision, 241–243
computational theory of mind,
99–100
computer versus animal
memory, 302, 325
cones, 235, 237, 238, 242
confocal imaging, 373
congenital anosmia, 276
congenital disorders,
216–217
consciousness
conscious triangle, 368–369
developing internal language
and, 337
language and, 332–333, 336
neocortical expansion,
323–324
overview, 21, 336
theorizing, 337–338
constraint-induced therapy
(CIT), 265
contingency planning, 311
continuous conduction, 78
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384 Neurobiology For Dummies
controlling movement,
pathways for basal ganglia,
143–145
cerebellum, 145–149
coordinating muscle groups,
139–140
extrapyramidal tracts, 136–137
knowing who is in control,
151–152
motor cortex, 137–138
prefrontal cortex, 140–142
pyramidal tracts, 136
thalamus, 150–151
co-release, 84
cornea, 234
corpus callosum, 213
correlated ring, 327–328
cortical maps, 56–57
cortisol, 351
covalent bonds, 24–25
CPGs (central pattern
generators), 161–162,
365–366
cranial nerves, 159, 172–173,
268–269
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD),
224–225
crossover, 26, 44
CSF (cerebrospinal uid), 14,
58–59, 156
cultured slices and cells, 372
cyclic nucleotide gated (CNG)
channel, 236
cytoplasm, 29
cytoskeleton, 31–32
D
dark current, 236
DCML (dorsal column medial
lemniscus) tract, 269
declarative memory, 292–295
decussation of the
pyramids, 169
deep brain stimulation (DBS),
354, 377
deep content association, 305
deep learning, 99–100, 305
default mode network, 370
Dehaene, Stanislas, 337
dendrites, 9, 13, 52–55
dendritic arborization, 38–39
dendritic spines, 106
dense core vesicles, 115
depolarization, 91
depression
antidepressants, 114
brain dysfunction theories of,
349–350
CBT, 353
common depressive
disorders, 347
early hypotheses about,
348–349
electrical brain
stimulation, 354
exercise and, 354
genes and environment in,
348, 350–351
antidepressants, 114
neuroplasticity hypothesis,
351–352
psychoplastogens for, 352–353
dermis, 163, 263
desensitization therapies, 357
developmental disorders
ADHD, 344–345
aging and, 60
ASD, 345
as brain dysfunction, 340–342
Down syndrome, 343–344
environmental factors, 346
Fragile X syndrome, 343
genetic and environmental
factors, 344–345
genetic causes, 342–344
from injuries, 346
maternal stress and
infections, 346
overview, 19, 339–340
Rett syndrome, 343
substance-related
syndromes, 346
Williams syndrome, 343
diabetic retinopathy, 249
diencephalon, 47
dierential gene expression, 26
dierentiation, 51–52
dipole, 24
direct pathway, 145
DNA. See genes/genetics
dominant traits, 40
dopamine, 112, 115, 145, 192,
223–224
dopaminergic neurons, 112
dorsal column medial lemniscus
(DCML) tract, 269
dorsal root ganglia (DRG),
156–157
dorsal stream, 248
dorsal-ventral axis formation, 45
dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex, 205
Down syndrome, 343–344
dreaming, 183
DRG (dorsal root ganglia),
156–157
driving force, 65, 67
drugs, 115, 346, 359
dura mater, 58, 155
E
EAATs (excitatory amino acid
transporters), 107
early development after
fertilization, 44–46
ears, 251–253, 260
ECT (electroconvulsive
therapy), 354
eector proteins, 92
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Index 385
electrical brain stimulation, 354,
376–377
electrical recordings,
advancements in, 373
electrical signaling. See also
synaptic transmission
active propagation, 73–78
membrane potentials, 68–73
electrical synapses, 69, 82–83
electrochemical equilibrium, 65
electrochemical gradient, 65, 67
electroconvulsive therapy
(ECT), 354
electrotonic signals, 70
emotions. See also limbic system
emotional processing, 188
empathy, 320
orbitofrontal cortex,
processing with, 141–142
smells and, 275–276
en passant synapses, 85
endocannabinoids, 267
endocrine system, 181
endocytic vesicles, 222
endocytosis, 88, 95
endogenous opioids, 116, 267
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 28,
30, 35–36
endosomal pathway, 36–37
entorhinal cortex, 275, 295
ependymal cells, 13
epidermis, 163, 263
epigenetics, 27, 45, 374
epilepsy, 213, 357
epinephrine, 113
episodic memory, 294–295
equilibrium potential (E
x
), 65–66
ER (endoplasmic reticulum), 28,
30, 35–36
eukaryotes, 43
excitatory amino acid
transporters (EAATs), 107
excitatory neurotransmitters,
90, 91
excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP), 69, 70, 74
excitotoxicity, glutamate, 110
executive functions
abstract plans, originating, 311
basal ganglia, initiating action
in, 313–315
mirror neurons, 319–320
motor cortex, coordinating
through, 315–319
neocortex and, 205–207
overview, 21
plans, converting to body
control, 312
prefrontal cortex,
commanding with, 312
exercise, 133–134, 306, 354, 358
exocytosis, 36, 88
extrapyramidal tracts,
136–137, 164
eye, anatomy of, 234
eye movements, 170–171,
234–235
F
facial expressions, 170
fast axonal transport (FAT), 31
fast-twitch (Type II) bers, 122,
128, 133
fear conditioning, 191, 290, 301
feature binding, 182
feedback inhibition, 319
feedforward inhibition, 318
FEFs (frontal eye elds), 151
fertilization, early development
after, 44–46
FES (functional electrical
stimulation), 229
fetal alcohol syndrome, 346
lopodium, 54
avor, perception of, 282–283
exor withdrawal reex, 131
exor-extensor muscle pair, 123
uent aphasia, 331
uorescence microscopy, 372
foods, impact on brain function,
358–359
forebrain, 15–16, 46, 48
forgetting, 302
Fragile X syndrome, 343
frequency transduction,
253–254
frontal eye elds (FEFs), 151
frontal lobe
abstract plans, originating, 311
approach-withdrawal
behavior, 209
basal ganglia, 313–315
consciousness and, 368–369
cortical expansion, 203–204
goal-generated action,
308–310
memory loss from damage
to, 303
mirror neurons, 319–320
motor cortex, 315–319
overview, 17, 21, 196–197
plans, converting to body
control, 312
prefrontal cortex,
commanding with, 312
functional electrical stimulation
(FES), 229
fused tetanic contraction, 128
fusiform face area, 210–211, 247
G
G proteins, 92
GABA, 90–92, 107–110
GABAergic neurons, 104–107
Gage, Phineas, 304
gait changes, 161
gamma motor neuron, 125
ganglia, 14
ganglionic eminence (GE), 49
gap junctions, 82–83
gasotransmitters, 84
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386 Neurobiology For Dummies
gastrulation, 44–45
gated ion channels, 65, 68
genes/genetics
in depression, 348, 350–351
developmental disorders,
342–345
disorders, 40–41
dominant and recessive
traits, 40
epigenetics, 27
gene editing, 375
gene expression, 26–28, 45,
51, 374
gene therapy, 42
Mendelian inheritance, 39
modication, 41–42
mutations, 344
phenotypes and genotypes,
39–40
protein translation, 28–29
RNA transcription, 26–27
in schizophrenia, 355
transcription mechanisms,
27–28
genetic disorders, 40–41
genome sequencing, 374
genotype, 26, 39–40
germ cells, 40–41
GFAP (glial brillary acidic
protein), 32
GHK (Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz)
equation, 67–68
glaucoma, 249
glial cells
barriers, 13
cell body, 11
cellular membranes, 32–35
cytoskeleton, 31–32
dened, 8
electrical signals, 13
functions of, 11
genetics, 26–28
gliogenesis, 50
ions, bonds, and molecules,
23–25
membrane tracking, 35–37
metabolic pathways, 25
number of, 9
organelles, 29–31
proteins, 28–29
replicating DNA, 25–26
typical, 12
glial brillary acidic protein
(GFAP), 32
global workspace theory (GWT),
337–338
globus pallidus, 143–144
glucagon-like peptide 1 (Glp-1)
receptor agonists, 284
glutamate
activating receptors, 105
in auditory system, 253
balancing inputs, 109–110
dendritic spines, 106
excitotoxicity, 110
fast excitatory transmission,
105–106
ionotropic receptors, 90,
91, 105
location of, 104
metabotropic receptors, 92,
105, 106
in most parts of CNS, 106
removal of, 107
synaptic plasticity, 107
in visual system, 236–237,
238–239
glutamatergic neurons, 52,
104–107, 199
glycine, 90, 91, 107–109
glycolysis, 30
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz (GHK)
equation, 67–68
Golgi apparatus, 30
Golgi tendon organs, 131
graded potentials, 62, 70
grammar, 330
gray matter, 15, 155–159,
198–199, 324
growth cone, 52, 54
guidance cues, 53
gustatory neurons, 278–280
gut feelings, 208, 209
GWT (global workspace theory),
337–338
gyri, 17
H
habituation, 288–289
hair cells, auditory, 253, 257–258
half-center oscillators, 161
hallucinogens, 353
hammer, 252
HD (Huntington’s disease), 224
hearing. See auditory system
hearing loss, 257–258
Hebbian plasticity, 56
hemispatial neglect, 250, 332
hemispheres, 195, 209–213
heterophilic nuclear RNA
(hnRNA), 28
higher order theories (HOT), 338
hindbrain, 47
hippocampus
depression and, 349
hippocampal circuit, 367
limbic system, 190
memory, role in, 295–296, 300
memory loss from damage
to, 303
histamine, 114
Hitch, Graham, 206, 294
hnRNA (heterophilic nuclear
RNA), 28
Hodgkin, Alan, 9
holistic processing, 212
homeostasis, 19, 176, 181.
See also autonomic
nervous system
homunculus, 138, 270
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Index 387
horizontal cells, 239
hormones, 181, 214, 283
horns, 155
HOT (higher order theories), 338
Huntington’s disease (HD), 224
Huxley, Andrew, 9
hydrocephalus, 58–59
hydrolysis, 63
hyperosmia, 276
hypnogram, 183
hypogeusia, 283
hypoglossal nucleus, 169
hypothalamus, 19, 180–184
I
ICM (inner cell mass), 44
iconic memory, 292–293
IIT (integrated information
theory), 338
Ikeda, Kikunae, 280
implicit memory, 287–292, 301
indirect pathway, 145
infections, 217, 222–223, 346
inferior colliculus, 170–171, 255
inferior olive, 169
infero-temporal cortex (IT), 247
inammatory myopathies,
218–219
inheritance, Mendelian, 39
inhibitory interneurons,
49, 52
inhibitory neurotransmitters,
90, 91
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP), 69, 70, 74, 108
injuries, 217, 227–229, 346
inner cell mass (ICM), 44
inner ear, 251
insula, 191–192, 282
integrated information theory
(IIT), 338
intellectual disability, 343
intelligence
brain size and, 335
decisions, abstract thinking,
and problem solving,
334–335
overview, 21, 333
processing speed, 335–336
types of, 333–334
intermediate progenitor cells
(iPCs), 48–49
internal chemoreceptors, 284
interneurons, dened, 11
intracellular recordings, 373
involuntary movements,
121, 124
ionotropic receptors, 69, 82,
89–91, 105
ions
channels, 62, 64–68
driving force, nding, 67
gated channels, 65, 68
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz
equation, 67–68
gradients, 63–66
Nernst equation, 65–66
overview, 24
transporters, 62–64
iPCs (intermediate progenitor
cells), 48–49
IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic
potential), 69, 70, 74, 108
isomerization, 237
IT (infero-temporal cortex), 247
itch, responding to, 265
J
journey method, 305–306
K
Kandel, Eric, 9, 289
Keller, Helen, 332
ketamine, 106, 114, 352
kiss and run fusion, 95
knee jerk reex, 130, 365
knock-outs/ins, 42
L
Lambert–Eaton myasthenic
syndrome (LEMs), 220
language
areas of brain for, 330–331
brain adaptation for, 322–326
brain hemispheres and, 212
comparing communication
and, 329–330
consciousness and, 332–333
dened, 329
intelligence, 333–334
internal, 337
learning instinct, 336
left-hemisphere areas,
210–211
losing from neural
dysfunction, 331
overview, 21
thought, sensory pathways for,
326–329
understanding, 256
visual processing
asymmetries, 332
lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN),
240, 245–246
lateral inhibition, 239
lateral prefrontal cortex, 141,
205–207
leak channels, 65, 66–68
learning
associative, 289
with basal ganglia, 314–315
dened, 286
improving memory and,
305–306
motor sequence, 316–319
non-associative, 289
overview, 20
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388 Neurobiology For Dummies
left hemisphere, 209–213, 332
LEMs (Lambert–Eaton
myasthenic syndrome), 220
LGN (lateral geniculate nucleus),
240, 245–246
lifespan motor disorders, 217
ligands, 89
limb movement, 161, 268
limbic system
allocortex, mesocortex, and
neocortex, 187–188
amygdala, 190–191
basal ganglia, 192
cerebellum, 193
cingulate gyrus, 189
control of behavior, 311
emotional processing, 188
hippocampus, 190
insula, 191–192
overview, 19, 187–193
prefrontal cortex, 193
lipid bilayers, 32–35
lipid transmitters, 84
loading reex, 130–131
Lomo, Terje, 297
long-term depression (LTD),
298, 301
long-term memory
declarative, 292–293, 294
hippocampus, role of, 190
human memory systems, 287
implicit, 287–292
prefrontal cortex and, 207
long-term potentiation (LTP),
297–298, 299, 301
Lou Gehrig’s disease, 221
LTD (long-term depression),
298, 301
lumbar nerves, 160
lysosomes, 30
M
MAPs (microtubule-associated
proteins), 31–32
Marr, David, 98
maternal stress and
infections, 346
mathematic intelligence,
333–334
MD (muscular dystrophy),
218
MDMA, 352
mechanoreceptors, 131, 163,
178–179, 262–266, 268
mechanosensitive ion
channels, 253
medial geniculate nucleus,
254, 255
medial-lateral axis formation, 45
medulla, 165, 167–169
MEG (magnetic
encephalography), 376
meiosis, 26, 44
Meissner’s corpuscles, 264
membrane capacitance,
70–71, 72
membrane potentials
action potentials, conducting,
78–79
action potentials, generating,
73–78
active transporters, 63
changes in, 68–73
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz
equation, 67–68
ion gradients, 64–66
leak channels, 66–68
Nernst equation, 65–66
overview, 13, 61–62
resting, 62
membrane resistance, 70–71
membrane tracking, 35–37
memory
basal ganglia, role in
procedural, 145
cholinergic neurons and, 104
computer versus animal, 302
declarative, 292–295
dened, 286
hippocampus, role of, 190,
295–296
human memory systems, 287
implicit, 287–292
improving learning and,
305–306
language and, 325–326
loss of, 302–305
overview, 20–21
patient H.M, 286
prefrontal cortex and, 206–207
procedural, 145, 288, 291, 301,
314–315
retrieval, 302
synaptic plasticity, 297–301
working, 20, 190, 206, 208,
293–294
memory palace, 306
Mendelian inheritance, 39
Meniere’s disease, 259
meninges, 14, 58, 155
mental disorders. See also
depression
as brain dysfunction, 340–342
epilepsy, 357
OCD, 356
overview, 339–340
PTSD, 357
schizophrenia, 354–356
Merkel disks, 264
mesencephalon, 47
mesocortex, 142, 187–188
messenger RNA (mRNA), 28
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Index 389
metabolic pathways, 25
metabotropic receptors, 69, 82,
90, 92–94, 105
meta-cognition, 334–335
metencephalon, 47
method of loci, 305–306
MG (myasthenia gravis),
219–220
microelectrode arrays, 377–378
microglia, 11, 13
microtubule-associated proteins
(MAPs), 31–32
microtubules, 31
midbrain, 47, 165, 170–173
middle ear, 251, 252
midget ganglion cells, 240
minicolumns, 49, 50, 199–200
mirror neurons, 319–320
mitochondria, 29
mitosis, 25, 44
Molaison, Henry, 286
molecules, 23–25
monoamine hypothesis,
348–349
monoamines, 83, 112–115
monomers, 23
monosynaptic reex, 130
morphogens, 45–46
mossy bers, 149, 296
motion parallax, 248
motor cortex, 18, 21, 137–138,
315–319
motor disorders
brain injuries, 227–228
congenital disorders, 216–217
damage to motor neurons,
221–223
early injuries and
infections, 217
lifespan, 217
movement disorders, 223–226
muscle diseases, 218–219
neuromuscular junction
disorders, 219–221
neuroprostheses, 229–230
overview, 215–216
spinal cord injuries, 228–229
strokes, 226–227
motor imagery, 317
motor learning, role of
cerebellum in, 145–149
motor neurons
controlling muscle contraction,
128–129
damage to, 221–223
dened, 11
exercise and aging,
133–134
fast- and slow-twitch skeletal
muscle bers, 122
muscle contraction events,
123–127
reexes, 129–132
smooth muscles, 120
somatosensory system,
162–165
striated muscles, 120–122
motor pool, 125, 164
motor sequence learning,
316–319
motor systems, 18–19, 99
motor unit ring rate, 128
motor units, 125, 164
motor-sensory dysfunction, 225
movement, visual processing
of, 246
movement disorders, 19,
223–226
mRNA (messenger RNA), 28
multiple sclerosis (MS), 58, 222
multiple trace theory, 300
multistore memory model,
287–288
muscarinic receptors, 102
muscle atrophy, 133
muscle diseases, 218–219
muscle bers, 121–122
muscle mass, in men versus
women, 134
muscle spindles, 130
muscles. See also controlling
movement, pathways for
cholinergic neurons in
contraction, 102–103
controlling muscle contraction,
128–129
coordinating muscle groups,
139–140
events in muscle contraction,
123–127
exercise and aging,
133–134
fast- and slow-twitch
bers, 122
reexes, 129–132
smooth, 120
spinal cord and contraction of,
162–165
striated, 120–122
muscular dystrophy (MD), 218
mutations, 40, 41
myasthenia gravis (MG),
219–220
myelencephalon, 47
myelination, 13, 57–59
myokines, 134
myopathies, inammatory,
218–219
myosin, 127
myositis, 218–219
N
naturally occurring psychoactive
substances, 358
NCCs (neural crest cells), 59
NECs (neuroepithelial cells), 48
neocerebellum, 146–147
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390 Neurobiology For Dummies
neocortex
behaviors, controlling, 207–209
cortical maps, 56–57
cortical neuron
development, 52
development of, 48, 203–205
evolution of, 201
higher executive functions,
205–207
language and, 323–324
layers and connection in,
200–201
left/right hemispheres,
209–213
limbic system, 187–188
lobes of, 196–197
overview, 19, 21, 195–196
relation to rest of brain,
202–203
section planes, 197–198
sex dierences, 213–214
structure and circuits, 198–200
thalamus and, 326–328
Nernst equation, 65–66
nerve cells. See neurons
nerves, 14
nervous system
brain, 15–17
circuits, functions of neurons
in, 97–100
cognitive functions, 20–21
control of motor systems,
18–19
development of
axon myelination, 57–59
dierentiation, 51–52
disruptions, 59–60
early stages after fertilization,
44–46
extending and guiding axons
and dendrites, 52–54
neurulation, 46–48
overview, 43
producing neural cells, 48–50
synaptogenesis, 54–57
disorders of, 40–41
evolution of, 8–10
neurons and glia, organization
of, 10–13
protecting and nourishing
parts of, 14
sensory systems, 20
network hypothesis, 350
neural, dened, 10
neural circuits
amygdala orbitofrontal cortex
loop, 367–368
basal ganglia thalamus
loop, 369
cerebellar coordination,
366–367
cingulate and pulvinar
executives, 369–370
conscious triangle, 368–369
CPGs, 365–366
functions of neurons in,
97–100
hippocampal, 367
in neocortex, 198–200
overview, 363
reticular formation, 364
somatic reexes, 364–365
thalamic relay to cortex, 366
neural coding, 78
neural convergence, 98–99
neural crest cells (NCCs), 59
neural dysfunction, 331
neural organoids, 372
neural oscillations, 182, 313–314
neural placodes, 59
neural plate, 45–48
neural tube, 46–48, 59
neural tube defects (NTDs),
46, 216
neuritis, 225
neurobiology, dened, 8
neuroblast, 49
neuroepithelial cells (NECs), 48
neurobrillary tangles, 304
neurolaments, 31
neurogenesis, 48–50, 299
neurogenetic techniques, 374
neuroglia. See glial cells
neurohormones, 181
neurological disorders. See
motor disorders
neuromodulation, 92
neuromuscular diseases,
218–219
neuromuscular junction, 126
neuromuscular junction
disorders, 219–221
neurons. See also membrane
potentials
anatomy, physiology, and
function, 37–38
barriers, 13
cell body, 11
cellular membranes, 32–35
cytoskeleton, 31–32
dened, 8
development of, 48–50
dierentiation, 51–52
electrical signals, 13
extending and guiding axons
and dendrites, 52–54
functions of, 11
genetics, 26–28
ions, bonds, and molecules,
23–25
membrane potential, 13
membrane tracking, 35–37
metabolic pathways, 25
neurogenesis, 48–50
neurotransmission, 37
number of, 9
organelles, 29–31
protein translation, 28–29
replicating DNA, 25–26
typical, 12
neuropathies, 225–226
neuropeptides, 84, 86, 115–116
neuroplasticity, 27
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