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Table of Contents ix

GettingBacktoRest ..........................................94

Ending

neurotransmitterresponses ..........................94

Recycling

membranesbyendocytosis ........................95

ClosinginonElectricalSynapses ...............................95

Flowing

throughgapjunctions ..............................95

Comparingchemicalandelectrical ...........................96

Integrating

PostsynapticResponses .............................96

Summating

thepotentials ..................................97

Changing

synapsesinplasticity ..............................97

Dividing

andConquering:Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

Analyzingthefunctions ....................................98

Pooling

sensoryinput ......................................98

Coordinating

motoroutput .................................99

Comparing

brainstocomputers .............................99

CHAPTER6: Communicating throughChemicals ................101

ActivatingwithAcetylcholine ..................................101

Working

withcholinergicneurons ..........................102

Stimulating

nicotinicreceptors .............................102

Expanding

withmuscarinicreceptors .......................102

Contracting

muscles ......................................102

Mediating

autonomicfunctions ............................103

Aecting

targetorgans ....................................103

Stimulating

inthebrain ...................................103

Focusingyourattentionandremembering ...................104

Exciting

withGlutamate ......................................104

Finding

glutamate ........................................104

Activating

glutamatereceptors .............................105

Specializing

inionotropicreceptors .........................105

Transmittingatglutamatesynapses ........................105

Contributing

metabotropicreceptors .......................106

Sortingoutspines ........................................106

Commandinginformationow .............................106

Adapting

toencodememories .............................107

Removingthesignal ......................................107

InhibitingwithGABAandGlycine ..............................107

Calmingneuronsdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107

Inhibitingwithchloride ....................................108

Shunting

thecurrent ......................................108

RegulatingGABAreceptors ................................109

IntegratingandMaintainingtheBalance ........................109

Balancingtheinputs ......................................110

Gettingtoxicwithtoomuchactivity .........................110

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x Neurobiology For Dummies

SignalingwithPurines ........................................110

Findingreceptorseverywhere ..............................111

Snoozing

withadenosine ..................................111

Modulating

withMonoamines ................................112

Feelingmotivatedwithdopamine ..........................112

Becoming

alertwithnorepinephrine ........................113

Aectingmoodwithserotonin .............................113

Rewiring

withserotonin ...................................114

Resting

withhistamine ....................................114

Targeting

transporters ....................................114

Getting

yourattention ....................................115

BehavingwithNeuropeptides .................................115

Making

andreleasingpeptides .............................115

Controlling

behaviors .....................................116

Relieving

painandfeelinghappy ...........................116

PART 2: CONTROLLING MUSCLES, MOVEMENT,

ANDSURVIVAL

...................................................117

CHAPTER7: Moving Muscles with Motor Neurons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

MakingaMove:MuscleTypesandWhatTheyDo ................120

Processing

withsmoothmuscle ............................120

Striated

muscleforheartsandlimbs ........................120

Twitching

fastandslow:Musclecomposition .................123

Pulling

YourWeight:HowMuscleCellsContract .................123

Patterning

musclecontractions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

Understanding

motorneurons .............................125

Eyeing

themotorunit .....................................125

Signalingattheneuromuscularjunction .....................126

Couplingexcitationcontraction ............................126

Slidinglaments:Actinandmyosin .........................127

ControllingMuscleContraction ................................128

Modulating

ringrate .....................................128

Recruitingmotorneurons .................................128

Reexing

withoutReecting ..................................129

Spinalreexes:Proprioceptionandprotection ...............129

Musclespindlesandthestretchreex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130

Staying

putwiththeloadingreex ..........................130

Golgitendonorgans ......................................131

Jointreceptorsforposition ................................131

Withdrawingalimbintheexorreex ......................131

Overridingareex ........................................132

ExerciseandAging ..........................................133

Useitorloseit:Theeectsofexercise ......................133

Slowingdownwithage ....................................133

Comparingmusclemassinmenandwomen .................134

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Table of Contents xi

CHAPTER8: Controlling Movement through

Brain Pathways

.........................................135

Overviewing

PathwaysforControllingMovement ................136

Focusing

onpyramidaltracts ...............................136

Eyeing

extrapyramidaltracts ...............................136

DirectingVoluntaryMovementwiththeMotorCortex ............137

Mapping

themovements:Thehomunculus ..................138

Population

coding ........................................138

Coordinating

MuscleGroups ..................................139

Guiding

withinternalgoalsandtheSMA .....................139

ExternallymonitoredperformanceandthePMC ..............140

Setting

GoalswiththePrefrontalCortex ........................140

Planning

withthelateralprefrontalcortex ...................141

Processing

emotionswiththeorbitofrontalcortex ............141

Producing

speech:Broca’sarea ............................142

Processingwiththecingulatecortex ........................142

Selecting

withtheBasalGanglia ...............................143

Flowingintoandoutofthebasalganglia ....................144

Working

insidebasalgangliacircuits ........................144

Correcting

ErrorsandMotorLearning:TheCerebellum ...........145

Dividingfunctionsinthecerebellum ........................146

Stepping

inholesandwhattodoaboutit ....................147

Carrying

theload:Feed-forwardforcecalibration .............148

Responding

throughcerebellarcircuits ......................149

The

Thalamus:GatewaytotheNeocortex ......................150

Moving

throughmotorpathways ...........................150

Payingattentiontothepulvinar ............................150

Modulating

withthalamicreticularareas ....................150

Seeingthefrontaleyeeldsandsuperiorcolliculus ...........151

Knowing,

orNotKnowing,Who’sInControl .....................151

CHAPTER9: Focusing On the Spinal Cord and Brain Stem ......153

SurveyingtheSpinalCord ....................................154

Protecting

thespinalcord .................................154

Examiningthegrayandwhitematter .......................155

Notingthespinalnerves ...................................159

Movingaround:Inputandeectors .........................160

Reectingonthebasicspinalreex .........................161

Focusingonspinalcentralpatterngenerators ................161

Feeling

andActing:ConnectingtheCNSandPNS ................162

Gettingstimulatedbyneuralsensors .......................163

Movingwithmotorneuroninputs ..........................164

Zeroinginonmotorneurons-eectors ......................164

Doingtheheavylifting:Musclecells .........................165

Concludingwiththespinalcord ............................165

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xii Neurobiology For Dummies

MovingandSurvivingwiththeBrainstem .......................165

Lookingcloseratthebrainstem ............................166

Meeting

themedulla ......................................167

Presenting

thepons ......................................169

Monitoringthemidbrain ..................................170

CHAPTER10: Maintaining the Internal Environment .............175

Finding

theRightTone:TheAutonomicNervousSystem ..........176

Subdividing

theautonomicnervoussystem ..................176

Inputting

totheautonomicnervoussystem ..................178

Responding

withvisceralreexes ...........................179

Controlling

theAutonomicNervousSystem .....................179

Regulating

autonomicoutputwiththebrainstem

andspinalcord ..........................................180

Integrating

autonomiccontrolbythehypothalamus ..........180

Linking

thebraintotheendocrinesystem ...................181

Oscillating

withbrainwaves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

Sleeping

andwaking:Circadianrhythms .....................182

Staying

AlivewiththeReticularFormation ......................185

Separatingthereticularformation ..........................185

Controlling

functions ......................................185

Modulating

activity:Reticularactivatingsystem ...............186

Continuing

throughthethalamusandcortex .................186

ControllingYourMotives:TheLimbicSystem ....................187

Going

fromallocortextomesocortextoneocortex ............187

Organizing

thoughtsandactivitieswiththecingulategyrus ....189

Creating

memorieswiththehippocampus ...................190

Feelingemotionalwiththeamygdalaandbeyond ............190

Assigning

withtheinsula(insularcortex) ....................191

Motivatingwiththebasalganglia ...........................192

Coordinatingwiththecerebellumagain .....................193

Integrating

withtheprefrontalcortex .......................193

CHAPTER11: Topping It O: The Neocortex ........................195

LookingInsidetheSkull:TheNeocortex ........................196

Examining

thelobes ......................................196

Noticinguniformstructureandcircuits ......................198

Communicatingthroughconnections .......................200

GettingtotheBrainYouHaveToday ...........................201

Lookingathowtheneocortexdevelops .....................203

Enlargingthefrontallobesforcomplexbehavior .............203

Settingandaccomplishinggoals ............................204

MakingDecisions:TheLateralPrefrontalCortex .................205

Keepingitallinmind. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205

Changingyourplans ......................................205

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Table of Contents xiii

Dialingthatnumber:Workingmemory ......................206

Recalling

long-termmemory ...............................207

Doing

theRightThing ........................................207

Respondingwiththeorbitofrontalcortex ....................207

Getting

thatbadfeeling:theamygdalaandcortical

connections

.............................................208

Going

withyourgut .......................................209

SeeingBothSides:TheLeftandRightHemispheres ..............209

Specializing

forlanguage ..................................210

Takinginthebigpicture:Spatialprocessing ..................211

Managing

withtwobrainsinonehead ......................211

Appreciating

thestyleofeachhemisphere ...................212

Considering

SexandtheBrain ................................213

Sizing

upthemaleandfemalebrain ........................213

Zeroing

inoncertainareasandlateralization ................214

Knowing

theroleofhormones .............................214

CHAPTER12: Delving into Motor Systems Disorders .............215

LeadingtoMotorDisorders ...................................215

Early

motordisabilitiesanddisorders .......................216

Injuries

andinfections ....................................217

Lifespan

motordisorders ..................................217

Failing

Forces:MuscleDiseases ................................218

Muscular

dystrophy ......................................218

Inammatory

myopathies .................................218

Autoimmune

disorders ....................................219

DisruptingtheNeuromuscularJunction ........................219

Myasthenia

gravis ........................................219

Lambert–Eaton

syndrome .................................220

Neurotoxinsandclinicaluses ..............................220

Looking

AtDamagetoMotorNeurons .........................221

Amyotrophiclateralsclerosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Multiple

sclerosis .........................................222

Viralinfections ...........................................222

ExaminingDisordersofMovement ............................223

Parkinson’s

disease .......................................223

Huntington’sdisease ......................................224

Creutzfeldt-Jakobdisease ..................................224

Neuropathies:motor-sensorydysfunction ...................225

Bell’spalsy ..............................................226

Focusing

onStrokesandInjuries ..............................226

Experiencingastroke .....................................226

Treatingstrokes ..........................................227

Injuringthebrain .........................................227

Injuringthespinalcord ....................................228

SubstitutingMachines:Neuroprostheses .......................229

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xiv Neurobiology For Dummies

PART 3: UNDERSTANDING PERCEPTION

AND COGNITION

................................................231

CHAPTER13: Looking At Vision andHearing .......................233

Imaging

andCapturingLight:Vision ............................234

Making

moviesontheretina ...............................234

Converting

throughphototransduction ......................235

Lightandthetransductioncascade .........................236

Joining

theNervousSystem:PhotoreceptorOutput ..............238

Converting

lightpatternstocontrast:Bipolarand

horizontalcells ...........................................239

Making

symmetrywithOnandObipolarcells ...............239

Projecting

withretinalganglioncells ........................240

Coloring

itin:Photonsandcolorvision ......................241

Sending

MessagestotheBrain ................................243

Relaying

atthethalamus ..................................243

Parallelprocessinginvisualcentersinmammals .............245

Fanning

Out:FromThalamustoOccipitalLobe ..................245

Layering

andconcurrentprocessinginV1 ...................246

Selecting

fororientationandmovement .....................246

StreamingtheMessagetotheTemporalandParietalLobes .......247

Seeing

complexshapes,colors,andobjectsinthe

ventral

stream ...........................................247

Seeing

whereandhow-tointhedorsalstream ...............248

Communicatingbetweendorsalandventralstreams ..........248

Losingvision:Blindness ...................................249

Seeing

withoutmeaning:Agnosias ..........................250

Listening

In:CapturingSoundWaves ...........................250

Good

vibrations:Gatheringandtransmittingsound

tothebrain ..............................................251

Respondingtowaveswithhaircells .........................253

Transducingwavesintoelectricalresponses .................253

Toningup:FrequencytransductionintheOrganofCorti. . . . . . .253

ChannelingSoundstotheBrain ...............................254

Comparingandrelaying ...................................255

Analyzingsounds:Superiortemporallobe ...................255

LosingHearing ..............................................257

Conductiveversusneuralhearingloss ......................257

Eh?

Aging,environment,andhearingloss ....................257

Aidinghearing:Amplifyingandreplacing ....................258

Ringingandtinnitus ......................................258

BalancingviatheVestibularSystem ............................259

CHAPTER14: Feeling, Smelling, andTasting ........................261

GettinginTouchwiththeSkin .................................262

Feelingyourwaywithmechanoreceptors ....................262

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Table of Contents xv

Employingreceptorcellsfortemperature,itch,andpain .......265

Locating

yourlimbswithskin,muscle,andjointreceptors .....268

Spinal

processingandcranialnerves ........................268

Sendingmessagestothethalamus .........................269

Recognizing

WhatYouTouchatSomatosensoryCortex ...........269

Mappingsenseswiththehomunculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270

Noting

specializedsomatosensoryareas ....................271

Getting

complicatedwithpain ..............................271

Sning

OuttheWorldaroundYou ............................272

Nosing

around:Olfactoryreceptors .........................273

Exploringtheolfactorybulb ................................273

Reaching

thecortexandamygdala ..........................274

Smelling

badlyversussmellingbad .........................276

Communicating

withpheromones ..........................277

TastingBasics:Sweet,Sour,Salty,andBitterReceptors ...........277

Grasping

thebasicsoftaste ................................277

Transducing

dierentways ................................279

Coding

fortaste:Labelsversuspatterns .....................280

Understandingtheumamiproblem .........................280

Tasting

withtheBrain ........................................281

Projecting

tastetothethalamus ............................281

Discriminating

tasteinthecortex ...........................282

Combining

tasteandsmellforavor ........................282

Losing

tastethroughinjuries ...............................283

Feeling

full. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283

Monitoring

BodyFunctionswithInternalChemoreceptors ........284

CHAPTER15: Learning to Remember ................................285

DeningLearningandMemory ................................286

ExaminingImplicit(Nondeclarative)Memory ....................288

Startingwithsensation:Sensorymemory ....................288

Gettingusedtohabituation ................................288

Respondingtosensitization ................................289

Classicalconditioning .....................................289

Fearconditioning .........................................290

Operant

conditioning .....................................290

Learningmotorsequences:Proceduralmemory ..............291

Preparing

forpriming .....................................292

FocusingonDeclarativeMemory ..............................292

Fleetingsensorymemories ................................292

Seeing

iconicmemoryinaction .............................293

Examiningshort-termmemory .............................293

Usingshort-termmemory:Workingmemory .................293

Addressinglong-termdeclarative(explicit)memory ...........294

Employing

receptorcellsfortemperature,itch,andpain .......265

Locating

yourlimbswithskin,muscle,andjointreceptors .....268

Spinal

processingandcranialnerves ........................268

Sending

messagestothethalamus .........................269

RecognizingWhatYouTouchatSomatosensoryCortex ...........269

Mapping

senseswiththehomunculus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270

Noting

specializedsomatosensoryareas ....................271

Getting

complicatedwithpain ..............................271

SningOuttheWorldaroundYou ............................272

Nosing

around:Olfactoryreceptors .........................273

Exploring

theolfactorybulb ................................273

Reaching

thecortexandamygdala ..........................274

Smellingbadlyversussmellingbad .........................276

Communicating

withpheromones ..........................277

TastingBasics:Sweet,Sour,Salty,andBitterReceptors ...........277

Grasping

thebasicsoftaste ................................277

Transducingdierentways ................................279

Coding

fortaste:Labelsversuspatterns .....................280

Understanding

theumamiproblem .........................280

Tasting

withtheBrain ........................................281

Projecting

tastetothethalamus ............................281

Discriminating

tasteinthecortex ...........................282

Combiningtasteandsmellforavor ........................282