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Introduction to Alkaloids
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99
Cheng (2013) assessed the in vitro antifungal action of the constituents from
C. majus contrary to clinical drug-resistant yeast quarantines. The results
give vital information for the probable application of the 8-hydroxylated
alkaloids from C. majus in the therapy of severe infection caused due to
drug-resistant fungi. Harringtonine, a cephalotaxane alkaloid, showed
powerful inhibition of CHIKV infection with nominal cytotoxicity and was
designated for clarification of its antiviral mechanism. Harringtonine applies
antiviral impacts by preventing CHIKV viral protein synthesis (Meghwal
and Goswami, 2013).
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Natural Compounds: An Introduction
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CHAPTER 4
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FUNDAMENTALS OF FLAVONOIDS
CONTENTS
4.1. Introduction .................................................................................... 106
4.2. Classification .................................................................................. 107
4.3. Current Research and Trends on Flavonoids .................................... 112
4.4. Functions and Applications of Flavonoids ....................................... 123
References .............................................................................................128
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Natural Compounds: An Introduction
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Flavonoids are a significant type of natural product; especially, they belong
to a type of plant secondary metabolites having a polyphenolic structure,
extensively found in vegetables, fruits, and few beverages. They had
miscellaneous favorable antioxidant and biochemical effects related to
several diseases like cancer, atherosclerosis, AD (Alzheimer’s disease), etc.,
(Burak and Imen, 1999; Ovando et al., 2009). Flavonoids are related to a wide
spectrum of health-promoting impacts and are a vital constituent in a variety
of pharmaceutical, medicinal, nutraceutical, and cosmetic applications. This
is due to their anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidative, and antimutagenic properties joined with their capability to modulate main cellular
enzyme functions. They are also recognized to be powerful inhibitors for
several enzymes, like COX (cyclo-oxygenase), XO (xanthine oxidase), and
phosphoinositide 3-kinase (Hayashi et al., 1998; Walker et al., 2000).
In nature, avonoid compounds are products taken out from plants,
and they are found in numerous parts of the plant. Flavonoids are utilized
by vegetables for their growth and defense against plaques. They belong
to a kind of low-molecular-weight phenolic compounds that are broadly
distributed in the plant kingdom. They form one of the most characteristic
types of compounds in higher plants. Numerous avonoids are simply
recognized as ower pigments in many angiosperm families. Though,
their existence is not limited to owers however are found in all portions
of plants (Dewick, 2001; Havsteen, 2002). Flavonoids are also plentifully
found in beverages and foods of plant origin, like tea, cocoa, vegetables,
fruits, and wine; therefore, they are called dietary avonoids. Flavonoids
had numerous subgroups, which comprise avonols, avones, isoavones,
and chalcones. These subgroups had distinctive major sources. For instance,
tea and onions are the main dietary sources of avones and avonols and
avones (Metodiewa et al., 1997; Lee et al., 2009).
Flavonoids play a diversity of biological activities in animals, bacteria,
and plants. In plants, avonoids had long been recognized to be synthesized
in specic sites and are responsible for the aroma and color of owers,
and in fruits to fascinate pollinators and therefore fruit dispersion to help
in spore and seed germination, and the growth and progress of seedlings
Fundamentals of Flavonoids
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(Griesbach, 2005). Flavonoids shield plants from different abiotic and biotic
stresses and work as unique UV lters, function as phytoalexins, allopathic
compounds, detoxifying agents, signal molecules, and antimicrobial
defensive compounds. Flavonoids have roles against drought resistance,
frost hardiness and might play an efcient role in plant freezing tolerance
and heat acclimatization. Jorgensen (1995) had mentioned that the early
developments in oral genetics were mainly due to mutation methods
making an effect on avonoid-derived ower colors, and revealed that
functional gene quieting in plants was related to avonoid biosynthesis.
Flavonoids had been attributed to positive effects on animal and human
health, and the present interest is for chemoprevention and disease therapy.
Presently there are around 6000 avonoids that add to the colorful pigments
of herbs, fruits, vegetables, and medicinal plants. Dixon and Pasinetti (2010)
examined plant isoavonoids and avonoids in detail and deliberated their
applications to neurosciences in human beings and agriculture. Kumar
and Pandey (2013) examined the protective function of avonoids against
human diseases also their functions in plants. Lately, Panche et al. (2015),
while studying current therapeutic and AD techniques, discussed in detail
the usages of avonoids as plant secondary metabolites for the treatment of
AD and the process involved. In the current review, efforts had been made
to deliberate the present trends of R&D on avonoids, their applications
as nutritional and health benets, along with comprehensive classication
and future research directions (Takahashi and Ohnishi, 2004; Samanta et al.,
2011).
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4.2. CLASSIFICATION
Flavonoids could be subdivided into different subgroups relying on the
carbon of the C ring on which the B ring is attached and the degree of
oxidation and unsaturation of the C ring (Figure 4.1).
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Figure 4.1: The simple skeleton structure of avonoids and their classes.
Natural Compounds: An Introduction
Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5465813/.
Flavonoids in which the B ring is connected in position 3 of the C ring
are termed isoavones. Those in which the B ring is connected in position
4 are termed neoavonoids, while those in which the B ring is connected
in position 2 could be further subdivided into numerous subgroups based
on the structural features of the C ring. These subgroups are avanonols,
avanones, avonols, avones, avanols or anthocyanins, chalcones, and
catechins (Figure 4.1).
4.2.1. Flavones
Flavones are one of the significant subgroups of flavonoids. Flavones are
broadly present in flowers, fruits, and leaves as glucosides. Chamomile,
mint, red peppers, parsley, celery, and ginkgo Biloba are among the main
sources of flavones. Apigenin, tangeritin, and Luteolin belong to this
subclass of flavonoids (Figure 4.2).
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