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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5825_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
Contents
1 Pelvic Floor Anatomy ................................................................... 1
S. Abbas Shobeiri
2 2D/3D Endovaginal and Endoanal Instrumentation
and Techniques .............................................................................. 19
S. Abbas Shobeiri
3 Instrumentation and Techniques for Translabial
and Transperineal Pelvic Floor Ultrasound ............................... 45
Milena Weinstein and S. Abbas Shobeiri
4 3D Endovaginal Ultrasound Imaging
of the Levator Ani Muscles .......................................................... 69
Lieschen H. Quiroz and S. Abbas Shobeiri
5 Endovaginal Urethra and Bladder Imaging ............................... 91
Andrzej Pawel Wieczorek and Magdalena Maria Wozniak
6 3D Endovaginal Imaging of the Anorectal Structures ............... 115
Dena E. White and S. Abbas Shobeiri
7 Endovaginal Imaging of Vaginal Implants ................................. 133
Aparna Hegde and G. Willy Davila
8 Endovaginal Imaging of Pelvic Floor Cysts and Masses ........... 153
Ghazaleh Rostaminia and S. Abbas Shobeiri
9 Three-Dimensional Endoanal Ultrasonography
of the Anorectal Region ................................................................ 163
Giulio A. Santoro and Sthela Murad-Regadas
10 Endoanal Ultrasonographic Imaging
of the Anorectal Cysts and Masses .............................................. 185
Sthela Murad-Regadas and Giulio A. Santoro
11 Emerging Imaging Technologies and Techniques ...................... 195
S. Abbas Shobeiri and Jittima B. Manonai
Post-Test Questions ............................................................................... 211
Index ....................................................................................................... 229
xi
Contributors
G. Willy Davila Section of Urogynecology and Reconstructive Pelvic
Surgery, Department of Gynecology, Cleveland Clinic Florida, Weston, FL,
USA
Aparna Hegde Founder, Delhi Pelvic Health Institute, Former IUGA fellow,
Cleveland Clinic, Florida, FL, USA
Jittima B. Manonai Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Faculty of
Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital , Ratchathewi , Bangkok , Thailand
Sthela Murad-Regadas Department of Surgery , School of Medicine of the
Federal University of Cearà , Fortaleza , Ceara , Brazil
Head Pelvic Floor Unit, Clinical Hospital, Federal, University of Cearà,
Fortaleza, Cearà, Brazil
Lieschen H. Quiroz Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , The
University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center , Oklahoma City , OK , USA
Ghazaleh Rostaminia Female Pelvic Medicine and Reconstructive Surgery,
The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma, USA
Giulio A. Santoro Head Pelvic Floor Unit , 3rd Division of Surgery, Regional
Hospital , Treviso , Italy
S. Abbas Shobeiri Female Pelvic Medicine and Reconstructive Surgery,
The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma , USA
Milena Weinstein Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology , Massachusetts
General Hospital , Boston , MA , USA
Dena E. White Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Section of
Female Pelvic Medicine and Reconstructive Surgery , The University of
Oklahoma Health Sciences Center , Oklahoma City , OK , USA
Andrzej Pawel Wieczorek Department of Pediatric Radiology , Medical
University of Lublin , Lublin , Poland
Magdalena Maria Wozniak Department of Pediatric Radiology , Medical
University of Lublin , Lublin , Poland
xiii
Pelvic Floor Anatomy
S. Abbas Shobeiri
Learning Objectives
1. Conceptualize pelvic organ support
2. Become familiarize with room analogy
and suspension bridge analogy of pelvic
organ support
3. Understand the intricate anatomy of the
levator ani subdivisions
4. Understand the role of endopelvic fascia and connective tissue for pelvic
organ support
1.1 Introduction
Pelvic fl oor disorders, including urinary incontinence, fecal incontinence, and pelvic organ prolapse (POP) represent a major public health issue
in the United States [ 1 ]. Pelvic fl oor disorders,
including POP and urinary incontinence, are debilitating conditions where 24 % of adult women have
at least one pelvic fl oor disorder [ 2 ] which results
in surgery in 1 of 9 women [ 3 ]. In the United states
the National Center for Health Statistics estimates
400,000 operations per year are performed for pelvic fl oor dysfunction each year with 300,000
occurring in the inpatient setting [ 4 ]. A study in
S. A. Shobeiri , M.D. (*)
Female Pelvic Medicine and Reconstructive Surgery,
The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center ,
WP 2410, 920 Stanton L. Young Blvd. , Oklahoma
City , OK 73104 , USA
e-mail: Abbas-Shobeiri@ouhsc.edu
Australian women found that the lifetime risk of
surgery for POP in the general female population
was 19 % [
of the frequency for post- hysterectomy vault prolapse requiring surgical repair was between 6 and
8 % [ 6 ]. A single vaginal birth has been shown to
signifi cantly increase the odds of prolapse (OR
9.73, 95 % CI 2.68–35.35). Additional vaginal
births were not associated with a signifi cant
increase in the odds of prolapse [ 7 ].
It is forecasted that the number of American
women with at least one pelvic fl oor disorder will
increase from 28.1 million in 2010 to 43.8 million
in 2050. During this time period, the number of
women with UI will increase 55 % from 18.3 million to 28.4 million. For fecal incontinence, the
number of affected women will increase 59 %
from 10.6 to 16.8 million, and the number of
women with POP will increase 46 % from 3.3 to
4.9 million. The highest projections for 2050 estimate that 58.2 million women in the United
States will have at least one pelvic fl oor disorder,
41.3 million with UI, 25.3 million with fecal
incontinence, and 9.2 million with POP. This
forecast has important public health implications.
Understanding the causes of pelvic fl oor disorders
is in its infancy. But what is known is that prolapse
arises because of injuries and deterioration of the
muscles, nerves, and connective tissue that support
and control normal pelvic function. This chapter
focuses on the functional anatomy of the pelvic
fl oor in women and how the anterior, posterior,
apical, and lateral compartments are supported.
5 ]. In an Austrian study an estimation
1
S.A. Shobeiri (ed.), Practical Pelvic Floor Ultrasonography: A Multicompartmental Approach
to 2D/3D/4D Ultrasonography of Pelvic Floor, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8426-4_1,
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
1
2
S.A. Shobeiri
Fig. 1.1 Room analogy © SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.3 Room analogy with anterior, middle, posterior
compartments, and the lateral walls marked © SHOBEIRI
2013
Fig. 1.2 Room analogy with three compartments separated © SHOBEIRI 2013
1.1.1 Support of the Pelvic Organs: Conceptual Overview
The pelvic organs rely on (1) their connective
tissue attachments to the pelvic walls and (2) support from the levator ani muscles that are under
neuronal control from the peripheral and central
nervous systems. In this chapter, the term “pelvic
fl oor” is used broadly to include all the structures
supporting the pelvic cavity rather than the
restricted use of this term to refer to the levator
ani group of muscles.
To convey the pelvic fl oor supportive structures to
the reader, we can use the “room analogy.” Using
this analogy, the reader can conceptualize the pelvic fl oor hiatus as the door out of this room
1.1 ). Using this very simplifi ed analogy, if
(Fig.
you view the pelvic fl oor hiatus from where the
Fig. 1.4 Room analogy; pubocervical fi bromuscularis
and rectovaginal fascia separating the three compartments
© SHOBEIRI 2013
sacrum is, the door frame for this room is the perineal membrane, the walls and the fl oor the levator
ani muscle, and the ceiling the pubic bone.
However, the pelvic fl oor is separated into three
compartments (Fig.
1.2 ). We arbitrarily call these
anterior, middle, posterior, and lateral compartments (Fig. 1.3 ). The tissue separating the anterior
and middle compartments is pubocervical fi bromuscularis or pubocervical fascia. The tissue separating the middle and posterior compartments is
rectovaginal fi bromuscularis or rectovaginal fascia
(Fig. 1.4 ). The pubocervical fi bromuscularis and
the rectovaginal septum are attached laterally to the
levator ani muscle with thickening of adventitia in
this area. Anatomically, the endopelvic fascia refers
to the areolar connective tissue that surrounds the
1 Pelvic Floor Anatomy
3
Fig. 1.5 Retropubic anatomy showing points of attachments of the ATLA and the ATFP. The urethra sits on the
hammock like pubocervical fi bromuscularis. # denotes
the levator ani attachment to the obturator internus muscle
© SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.7 Room analogy; three compartments separation
© SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.6 Room analogy; the line of attachment of the
pubocervical fascia to the levator ani is arcus tendineus
fascia pelvis. The line of attachment of the rectovaginal
fascia to the levator ani is the posterior arcus. Both are
shown as red lines © SHOBEIRI 2013
vagina. It continues down the length of the vagina
as loose areolar tissue surrounding the pelvic viscera. Histologic examination has shown that the
vagina is made up of three layers—epithelium,
muscularis, and adventitia [ 8 , 9 ]. The adventitial
layer is loose areolar connective tissue made up of
collagen and elastin and form the vaginal tube.
Therefore the tissue that surgeons call fascia at the
time of surgery is best described as fi bromuscularis
since it is a mixture of muscularis and adventitia.
Anteriorly, pubocervical fi bromuscularis is
attached to the levator ani using arcus tendineus
fascia pelvis (Fig. 1.5 ). Posterior attachment of rec-
Fig. 1.8 Midsagittal anatomy of an intact cadaveric specimen demonstrating the three different compartments ©
SHOBEIRI 2013
tovaginal septum to the levator ani is poorly understood but we will refer to it as the posterior arcus
(Fig. 1.6 ) [ 10 ]. The anterior compartment is home
to the urethra and the lower part of the bladder. The
middle compartment is the vagina, and the posterior compartment is home to anorectum (Fig. 1.7 ).
This analogy is not far from reality. When one
looks at the pelvic fl oor structures, the three compartments are clearly separated as described
(Fig. 1.8 ). Compartmentalization of the pelvic
fl oor has lead to different medical specialties looking at that specifi c compartment and paying less
attention to the whole pelvic fl oor (Fig. 1.9 ).
If one looks at the middle compartment from
the side, he or she can appreciate different levels of
support as described by DeLancey and colleagues
[ 11 ] (Fig. 1.10 ). Looking at these supportive
4
S.A. Shobeiri
Fig. 1.9 Room analogy; each area or compartment may
be managed by a different specialist. There is a great need
for one specialty that understands the interaction between
different compartments and manages them concurrently
as much as possible © SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.11 Suspension bridge analogy; the depiction of a
normal bridge © SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.12 Suspension bridge analogy; the depiction of a
suspension bridge adapted to human female pelvic fl oor
structures. The red masts are the ischial spine and the
pubis. The blue lines are the levator ani fi bers. The green
line is the uterosacral ligaments continuous with the posterior arcus line. The anococcygeal ligament provides
anchoring point for the posterior structures © SHOBEIRI
2013
Fig. 1.10 Room analogy; level one support are provided
by the uterosacral-cardinal ligament complex which keep
the room upright. These are demonstrated as the yellow
arrows . The level II supports are provided by the lateral
tendineus attachments drawn as red lines . The level III
support is provided by perineal membrane which is the
green area © SHOBEIRI 2013
structures from the sagittal view exposes the
connective tissue elements that keep the room
standing. Generally, a “suspension bridge” analogy is useful for to describing these structures
(Fig. 1.11 ). Although in room analogy, the ante-
rior, middle, and posterior compartments house
the pelvic organs; in reality, the pelvic organs
are part of the pelvic fl oor and play an important
supportive role through their connections with
structures, such as the cardinal and uterosacral
ligaments. Adapting this suspension bridge to
human body, perineal body and the sacrum
become the two anchoring points of the bridge.
Perineal membrane (DeLancey Level III) and the
uterosacral ligaments (DeLancey Level I) form
the two masts of the suspension bridge (Fig. 1.12 ).
The lateral wires are the levator ani muscles of
the lateral wall (Fig. 1.13 ) and the attachments of
the vagina to the levator ani muscles laterally in
the mid part of the vagina forms Delancey’s
Level II support. The levator ani muscles and the
interconnecting fi bromuscular structures support
bladder and urethra anteriorly, vaginal canal in
the middle, and anorectal structures posteriorly
(Fig. 1.14 ).
Like a room or a suspension bridge, the pelvic
fl oor is subjected to loads that should be appropriate
1 Pelvic Floor Anatomy
5
Fig. 1.13 Suspension bridge analogy; the depiction of a
suspension bridge adapted to human female pelvic fl oor
structures. The levator ani fi bers have intricate and overlapping paths. The puboanalis (PA) and puboperinealis
form some of the supportive structures of the perineum.
The puborectalis (PR) fi bers form the sling behind the rectum. Pubovisceralis (PV) is a collective term we have
applied here to the iliococcygeus and pubococcygeous
fi bers. The levator plate (LP) is formed by overlapping of
the PV and PR fi bers © SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.15 Right lateral standing anatomic depiction of
the three compartments exposed to intraabdominal pressure which results in activation of the muscles to prevent
prolapse or urinary and fecal incontinence. B bladder, Cx
cervix, R rectum, LA levator ani, U urethra, V vagina, A
anus © SHOBEIRI 2013
(Fig. 1.16 ). Pubococcygeus is a functional unit
of the iliococcygeus and these two collectively
are known as the pubovisceralis muscle. The
relationship of these muscles to each other is
interesting as they criss cross in different angles
to each other (Figs. 1.17 and 1.18 ).
Fig. 1.14 Suspension bridge analogy; the depiction of
different compartments of pelvic fl oor © SHOBEIRI 2013
for its design. Should these loads exceed what the
pelvic fl oor is capable of handling there would be
failure in one or multiple supportive elements.
Pelvic fl oor is not a static structure. The levator
ani works in concert with the ligamentous structures to withstand intraabdominal pressure that
could predispose to POP and urinary or fecal
incontinence during daily activities (Fig. 1.15 ).
The lower end of the pelvic fl oor is held closed by
the pelvic fl oor muscles, preventing prolapse by
constricting the base. The spatial relationship of
the organs and the pelvic fl oor are important.
Pelvic support is a combination of constriction,
suspension, and structural geometry.
The levator ani muscle has puboperinealis,
puboanalis, pubovaginalis, puborectalis, pubococcygeus, and iliococcygeus subdivisions
1.2 Practical Anatomy and Prolapse
1.2.1 Overview
Level I support is composed of the uterosacral
and cardinal ligaments which form the support
of the uterus and upper 1/3 of the vagina.
Stretching and failure of level I can result in pure
apical prolapse of the uterus or an enterocele formation. At Level II, there are direct lateral
attachments of the pubocervical fi bromuscularis
and rectovaginal fi bromuscularis to the lateral
compartments formed by the levator ani muscles. The variations of defects in this level will
be described in the following sections. In the
Level III the vaginal wall is anteriorly fused with
the urethra, posteriorly with the perineal body.
Levator ani muscles in this area are poorly
described, but mostly consist of fi brous sheets
that envelop the lateral aspects of the vaginal
introitus.
6
S.A. Shobeiri
Fig. 1.17 Right hemipelvis of a fresh frozen pelvis
showing the overlapping of the levator ani subdivisions
fi bers. The orange arrows : puborectalis; the blue arrows :
iliococcygeus; the white arrows : pubococcygeus. Note the
relationship between the iliococcygeus and pubococcygeus fi bers. © SHOBEIRI 2013
Fig. 1.16 The relative position of levator ani subdivisions during ultrasound imaging. IC iliococcygeus, PP
puboperinealis, STP superfi cial transverse perinei, PA
puboanalis. Illustration: John Yanson. Shobeiri . Ultrasono-
graphy Validation . Obstet Gynecol 2009
1.2.2 Apical Segment
While level I cardinal and uterosacral ligaments
can be surgically identifi ed supporting the cervix
and the upper 1/3 of the vagina [
fan out toward the sacrum and laterally, they
become a mixture of connective tissue, blood
vessels, nerves, smooth muscle, and adipose tissue. The uterosacral ligaments act like rubber
bands in that they may lengthen with initial
Valsalva, but resist any further lengthening at a
critical point in which they have to return to their
comfortable length or break (Fig.
and levator ani muscles are interdependent. Intact
12 , 13 ], as they
1.19 ). Level I
Fig. 1.18 Right hemipelvis of a fresh frozen pelvis with
the organs removed. The puborectalis (PR), iliococcygeus
(IC), and pubococcygeus (PC) form the lateral sidewall.
Note the relationship between the iliococcygeus and
pubococcygeus fi bers. © SHOBEIRI 2013
levator ani muscles moderate the tension placed
on the level I support structures and intact level I
support lessen the pressure imposed from above
on the pelvic fl oor.
1.2.3 Anterior Compartment
Anterior compartment support depends on the
integrity of vaginal muscularis and adventitia and
their connections to the arcus tendineus fascia