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Файл:Academic English Theoretical and Practical Training of Graduate Students. Учебное пособие по практикуму английского языка для студентов 4 курса
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the hero.
Rhetorical questions may be used to draw the attention to a certain point
of discourse.
Stage directions – a description of the scene, the characters; the indications
as to the development of the action, comments on the characters’ behavior, their
clothes, manner of speech, emotions, etc.
Stock character – a stereotyped character recognized as belonging to an
established class. E.g. in Oliver Twist by Dickens, Bill Sikes is a heavy villain, in
Conan Doyle’s stories Sherlock Holmes is a masterly detective.
Story within a story – an interpolated story within a novel or story.
Stream of consciousness – a form of narration wherein the author attempts
to record life by setting down everything that comes into the character’s mind,
without any reasonable selection. S. of c. is based on the conception of the
prevalence of the subconscious over the conscious; hence the recording of
unperceived by senses or intellect emotions. S. of c. brought into literature a
deeper insight into human psychology, but on the other hand led to the
disintegration of the form of the realistic novel and the character. Among the
English writers who made use of this form of narration were James Joyce, Henry
James, Virginia Woolf.
Subplot – one accompanying and often paralleling the main action of a
novel or play.
Suspense – is a deliberate delay in the completion of the expressed thought.
The reader awaits the completion of the utterance with an increasing tension. It is
used to create a state of uncertainty with anxiety and expectation, the atmosphere
of tension and anticipation for smth. important to happen.
Surprise ending –an unexpected twist of the plot not revealed until the end
of the story, as in many stories by O’Henry.
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WRITING AN ESSAY. TYPES OF ESSAYS.
There are four main types of essays:
Narrative Essays. They are 1st person essays in which the writer narrates
his experience or some story. The aim is to involve readers into the events of a
story as if they were right there when they were happening, make the story as vivid
and real as possible.
Descriptive Essays. It describes a place, an object, an event or even a
memory. In such essays the writer paints a picture through his words involving the
senses of smell, touch, sound etc. so that the reader could feel the emotions the
writer was feeling at the moment.
Expository Essays. It presents the writer’s balanced study of a topic that he
has real and extensive knowledge about. Expository essays are completely based
on facts, statistics, examples and lack feelings and emotions. There are sub-types
here like contrast essays (for-and-against), cause and effect essays etc.
Persuasive Essays. Their purpose is to get the reader to the write’s side of
the argument, to convince the reader of the writer’s point of view. Both sides of
the argument have to be presented in such essays. But the ultimate aim is to
persuade the readers that the writer’s argument carries more weight
(https://www.toppr.com).
Essay Writing Rules and Strategies. Model Essays
Academic essay is always discursive. It requires you to write about a
contemporary social issue. You are given a point of view and are asked for your
opinion. The content of the essay must be relevant to the question. The ideas
expressed in the essay should be logically organised and supported. Different parts
of the essay should be logically and grammatically connected; the essay must be
coherent and cohesive (5; 11).
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Important strategies:
- carefully plan what you are going to write;
- do not volunteer information you were not asked for. Include only the
relevant information;
- use varied vocabulary and syntax;
- do not copy the wording in the task. Paraphrase.
Scoring of an essay:
Task fulfilment: you must give a clear, accurate and relevant description of
the information given in the task. You must cover all the key points.
Coherence and cohesion: your writing needs to be logically organised into
paragraphs. Sentences should be logically linked using appropriate conjunctions
and linking words.
Vocabulary and grammar: you should use a variety of appropriate
vocabulary ans syntactical structures accurately. Your spelling and punctuation
need to be accurate (5; 11).
The Structure of an Essay
The three basic elements are found in all types of essays: an introduction, the body
text, and a conclusion.
Introduction. You should include a general or neutral statement about the
topic. Avoid using the exact words from the task rubric. Try to paraphrase the
statements given in the task. You can include your own opinion only if the
approach you choose is thesis-led.
Body. The main body should have at least three paragraphs. Each paragraph
should have a topic sentence and supporting evidence. You should use specific
ideas or examples to support the views from the task rubric. Sentences must be
logically and syntactically connected and punctuated.
Conclusion. In the last paragraph, you should recapitulate the main points
discussed in the body of your essay and include statements offering a solution,
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prediction, result or recommendation. You do not need to add new arguments or
information, but you can include your points of view in the conclusion (if the
chosen approach allows).
For-and-against Essay (argument-led approach)
In the introductory paragraph you should show the controversy of the
problem, different points of view. In the body paragraphs discuss the opposing
views, speak about advantages and disadvantages. Remember that each paragraph
should have one main argument – start a new paragraph when you start a new idea
(5). The first sentence of each paragraph is a topic sentence (it should state the
main idea of the whole paragraph). Conclude the for-and-against essay by
summarising the points and stating your own personal view.
For-and-Against Essay (sample)
“The Internet has dramatically changed the way we access information. Some
people think that there is a lot of harmful content with very little regulation online,
and argue that strict policies are needed to regulate the Internet. Others oppose
the view and think that the Internet should not be regulated. Discuss both of these
views and give your opinion. Give reasons for your answer and include any
relevant examples from your own knowledge and experience”.
Since the Internet became known to the general public in the early 1990s. It
has revolutionized the way we access information. Today, even a basic personal
computer connected to the Internet and equipped with a browser can be a powerful
tool for extracting information from a huge pool of data. There is a genuine
concern that information in this data pool is useless, and some can be even
harmful. The advocates of this view argue that the Internet should be regulated.
Others, however, disagree, and believe that Internet should not and cannot be
regulated.
On the one hand, those in favour of regulating the Internet have valid
reasons to be concerned about the safety and the quality of information found on
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the Web. The Internet does contain websites that incite hatred, racism and religious
intolerance. Children surfing the Web may access sites which sell inappropriate or
adult content. Also, Internet fraud has increased over the years. Some use these
facts to urge governments to adopt strict policies and in some cases even laws,
aimed at banning offensive content from being published online.
On the other hand, there are many people who would argue the Internet is
simply a technology platform, and it should be left to the user to decide what
information she accesses online. The Internet is a democratic tool which enables
everyone to share any kind of information. Therefore, Internet users, especially
parents and children, need to be educated about the potential dangers of some
information accessible via in the Web, and how to protect themselves from coming
in contact with offensive online content. Indeed, a quick search will show links to
content filters and anti-virus programs which can be downloaded and installed for
free, and will make surfing online much safer.
In conclusion, although the dangers online are real, there is no need for the
Internet to be regulated by introducing strict policies. I believe the decision to
restrict access to harmful online content should be left to individuals (5).
Opinion Essay (thesis-led approach)
In the introductory paragraph you should show the controversy of the
problem and state your opinion clearly. In the body paragraphs give the arguments
in favour of your opinion. The topic sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph.
Body paragraphs should contain a main or topic statement with supporting points
(5). The objective of the conclusion is to restate your final opinion. Your
conclusion must logically follow the arguments you have presented in the body
paragraphs. It should never lead to another discussion.
Opinion Essay (sample)
Space exploration is much too expensive and the money should be spent on
more important things. What is your opinion?
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There is an argument that exploring space is a waste of money and that there
are more urgent needs to be addressed on earth, such as reducing poverty and
preventing environmental destruction. However, I completely disagree with this
opinion for two reasons.
First of all, many of the technologies we take for granted today were
originated thanks to space research. Take satellite technology, for example, which
we depend on for broadcasting and weather forecasting. Without satellites, we
would not be able to follow global events as they happen, nor give populations
any warning of approaching storms. Space research has also led to the
development of new lightweight materials that offer us heat protection and enable
food preservation. Therefore, the challenge of sending human beings into space
has often driven the development of new technologies that benefit our everyday
lives.
Second, we cannot foresee the distant future, so we ought to develop the
capability to escape from the earth. Gradually, we are learning how humans can
survive for long periods in space and even travel to other planets in the future. If
space exploration is halted, this valuable knowledge will never be acquired. It is
true that environmental destruction is also a serious issue, but it is also true that
we remain dependent on our environment if we never accept the challenge of
exploring other worlds.
In conclusion, while we undoubtedly face serious problems on our own
planet, it is imperative that we continue to explore space. This will promote further
technological advances as well as provide a possible means of escape should earth
become uninhabitable in future. Ideally, all nations should cooperate in the
advancement of space research.
Analytical Essay
Knowing how to write an analytical essay is a key to writing many other
types of academic assignments. An analytical essay is not a summary! You don't
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have to summarize facts and things or retell them in your analytical work but make
an analysis. For example, if you are writing an essay about a book, you should
analyze how the author wrote it, which methods they used, and how this book
impacts on its readers.
When you are required to write an analytical essay, it means in your essay
you should present some argument, and then to analyze it thoroughly. It is almost
like an illustration essay in some way. This type of the analytical work could be
written about a movie, an event, or even a scientific research.
Various Types of Analytical Essays
Persuasive Analytical Essay: In this type of essay, you are required to state
your position on an issue and provide supporting arguments for the same along
with the relevant evidence.
Analytical Expository Essay: This essay seeks to explain an idea, issue, or
theme. It communicates your explanation of a certain event, book, art, and so forth
to your reader.
Analytical History Essay: This type of essay provides an analysis of a
particular event in history. You are required to provide your position regarding
that event alongside relevant supporting information.
Analytical Comparison Essay: This type of essay compares different
ideas, books, and texts. It must provide arguments and evidence for all things you
are comparing. It aims to provide an informed conclusion at the end.
So, an analytical paper is a type of academic paper assigned by the high
school/college teacher, which aims to analyze a specific topic. The student must
introduce both pros & cons on the given issue. The mission of an analytical work
is to explore points on a chosen topic/content as a reply to a set of questions or a
claim to discuss/offer analysis. If you want to make a successful analytical writing
to impress your audience, you need to learn how to create the main parts of an
analytical essay (11).
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Read and analyse the following analytical essay. In which way does it differ
from the sample essays you’ve read before? Which points made by the author do
you strongly agree or disagree with?
Analytical Essay (sample)
The Subjectivity of Belief
From observances of superstitions and taboos to the enormous sway of
global religions, every culture exhibits some form of belief system. No culture has
been found which does not, in one form or another, espouse its own such system.
Then, as must be expected, these systems are highly esteemed by the cultures
holding to them. As Ferraro notes, the witchcraft of one culture is just as valid to
it as the meaning of prayer is to another. This is essentially why belief systems are
so adamantly defended; an alien culture may view other beliefs as irrational and
easily proven invalid through science, but each belief of any kind nonetheless
serves to answer a basic need within those subscribing to it. In the realms of belief,
superstition, and taboo, everything truly is in the “eye of the beholder”, for no
outsiders can fully appreciate a meaning which they did not themselves compose,
and consequently do not rely upon.
In a sense, belief appears to be a necessary and natural extension of human
thought. Things occur, on personal, natural, and societal levels that are not due to
either human effort or any natural system in evidence, and the human animal is
distinctly uncomfortable with this. Everything considered as proven and known to
any society, or even person, is known and accepted because it ultimately makes
sense. Reaction follows action, and cause produces effect. Consequently, when
any effect at all seems spontaneous, it is a universal human mechanism to turn to
a belief-based explanation. These explanations, then, take on logical stature, and
virtually no cultural belief is not seen by that culture as perfectly rational.
Moreover, as noted in George Gmelch’s study of how superstition and belief
play into the American game of professional baseball, people tend to not merely
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like, but demand, accountability for that which offers no evident logic or rationale.
More precisely, it appears that there is an inherent human impulse to identify a
cause or reason for any misfortune. The player who does poorly in a game
associates the performance with his having stepped on a chalk line prior to the
game, or he merely remembers having done so as an oddity, and therefore
establishes the act as responsible for the bad game. Other players maintain
different, personal taboos, ranging from wearing caps to eating certain foods.
What is most interesting about this particular arena is that, to the average
American, these superstitions are harmless, understandable quirks related to the
players’ senses of personal ability, and the same American may well view a tribal
ritual from, for example, an Asian courtship practice as groundless and pointless.
The key element of a needed rationality, present in the former instance, is
completely absent to the American in the latter because the context is unknown to
him.
It follows, then, that a common human characteristic is being unable to
accept as reasonable a belief system at variance with a known one. As noted, every
belief must be in place because it satisfies a specific culture’s or person’s need for
a kind of reason. It explains something, and it explains it perfectly well to the party
devising and holding to the explanation, no matter how utterly irrational it may
seem to an outsider. Then, an exponential development is likely to take place in
such cultural scenarios; the culture creating the belief is prone to become
possessive of it. Time and again, history records that a chief component within
one culture’s overtaking of another, either through conquest or peaceful means, is
that the visited culture dreads contamination. It is as though the culture has a
visceral sense that the belief system, created by it, can only belong to it as a true
rationale.
There is, as well, a curiously consistent aspect to virtually every form of
superstition and/or belief present in any culture; namely, if certain, physical
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parameters or acts are involved with it, these things must be observed absolutely
precisely. Form is followed to an exacting degree in the rituals of the Catholic
Church, which boasts a following of many millions, and the same commitment to
form is invariably witnessed in the rites of isolated, small tribes. Symbols are a
crucial element in this type of belief, if only by virtue of their physical presence.
In much the same way, the baseball player who values the socks he wore on a
winning day as talismans invests the garments with a kind of emotional power.
The instances are, of course, inherently diverse, but the force of symbolism is
ultimately the same.
Additionally, belief systems tend to manifest a persistence indicating an
even greater need, and one also unique to, and shaped by, each culture. That is to
say, scientific knowledge does not always supplant superstitious belief, and many
cultures incorporate the two to fully address all potentials of life. It may be that
mankind has an innate need to believe in something actually not in accord with
science, for entertaining openness to supernatural explanations may act as a kind
of “leveling” mechanism. More exactly, human beings may not be equipped to
accept all reasoning as logical and scientific, because the obligation to then always
do so is too daunting. Based on this known factor of the tenacity of beliefs, it
appears that people at least partially require symbols and superstitions to
acknowledge human fallibility, even as they most certainly employ them to
explain and enhance occurrences in individual cultures.
“Reasoning” aside, it seems probable that various cultures will always
create or identify certain beliefs as uniquely their own, as history has indicated this
to be something of a cultural inevitability. Provided the belief systems in question
do not harm others, what is absolutely essential is that mutual regard be maintained
for what can never be truly appreciated beyond one culture’s parameters.
Essentially, what is created by a culture in this regard absolutely belongs only to
it. The subject is inescapably subjective for, in the arenas of belief and superstition,
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