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30 Reconstruction ofPost-Traumatic Maxillary Ridges Using aRadial Forearm Free Flap andAllogeneic…
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References
1. Hidalgo DA. Fibula free ap: a new method of mandible reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1989;84(1):71–9.
2. Hayden RE, Mullin DP, Patel AK. Reconstruction of the segmental mandibular defect: current state of the art. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2012;20(4):231–6.
3. Wijbenga JG, Schepers RH, Werker PM, Witjes MJ, Dijkstra PU.A systematic review of functional outcome and quality of life following reconstruc­tion of maxillofacial defects using vascularized free bula aps and dental rehabilitation reveals poor data quality. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2016;69(8):1024–36.
4. Bodde EW, De Visser E, Duysens JE, Hartman EH. Donor-site morbidity after free vascular­ized autogenous bular transfer: subjective and quantitative analyses. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2003;111(7):2237–42.
5. Jensen SS, Terheyden H. Bone augmentation pro­cedures in localized defects in the alveolar ridge: clinical results with different bone grafts and bone­substitute materials. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2009;24(Suppl):218–36.
6. Matros E, Santamaria E, Cordeiro PG. Standardized templates for shaping the bula free ap in man­dible reconstruction. J Reconstr Microsurg. 2013;29(09):619–22.
7. Song R, Song Y, Yu Y, Song Y. The upper arm free ap. Clin Plast Surg. 1982;9(1):27–35.
8. Moscoso JF, Urken ML. Radial forearm aps. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 1994;27(6):1119–40.
9. Jäger M, Herten M, Fochtmann U, Fischer J, Hernigou P, Zilkens C, Hendrich C, Krauspe R. Bridging the gap: bone marrow aspiration concentrate reduces
autologous bone grafting in osseous defects. J Orthop Res. 2011;29(2):173–80.
10. Chahla J, Mannava S, Cinque ME, Geeslin AG, Codina D, LaPrade RF.Bone marrow aspirate concen­trate harvesting and processing technique. Arthrosc Tech. 2017;6(2):e441–e5.
11. Melville JC, Tursun R, Green JM, Marx RE. Reconstruction of a post-traumatic maxillary ridge using a radial forearm free ap and immedi­ate tissue engineering (bone morphogenetic protein, bone marrow aspirate concentrate, and cortical­cancellous bone): case report. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;75(2):438.e1–6.
12. Melville JC, Nassari NN, Hanna IA, Shum JW, Wong ME, Young S.Immediate transoral allogeneic bone grafting for large mandibular defects. Less morbidity, more bone. A paradigm in benign tumor mandibular reconstruction? J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;75(4):828–38.
13. Hutmacher DW.Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials. 2000;21(24):2529–43.
14. Marx RE, Stevens MR. Atlas of oral and extraoral bone harvesting. Hanover Park, IL: Quintessence Pub Co; 2010.
15. Fillingham Y, Jacobs J. Bone grafts and their substi­tutes. Bone Joint J. 2016;98(1 Suppl A):6–9.
16. Marx RE, Harrell DB. Translational research: the CD34+ cell is crucial for large-volume bone regenera­tion from the milieu of bone marrow progenitor cells in craniomandibular reconstruction. Oral Craniofac Tissue Eng. 2012;2(4):263–71.
17. Timmons MJ.The vascular basis of the radial forearm ap. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1986;77(1):80–92.
18. Abu-Omar Y, Mussa S, Anastasiadis K, Steel S, Hands L, Taggart DP. Duplex ultrasonography predicts safety of radial artery harvest in the pres­ence of an abnormal Allen test. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;77(1):116–9.
Postoperative Complications
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ofMandibular Fracture Management
GiuseppeSpinelli, FrancescoArcuri, DomenicoValente, andTommasoAgostini
31
31.1 Introduction
Mandible fractures account for 35–80% of all maxillofacial fractures. Etiologic factors of facial fracture are variable and depend on regional and social characteristics. In a review of more than ten thousand patients, mandibular fracture is most common in patients aged between 18 and 24years and seen four times as frequent in male patients compared with female patients. Mechanism of injury is commonly assault, followed by motor vehicle accidents and falls [1].
When considering between open and closed reduction of mandibular fractures, the advan­tages should be weighed against the disadvan­tages. Considerations include the site and characteristics of the fracture and the morbidi­ties of the treatment. Unwanted results includ­ing bony ankylosis or decreased mouth opening can be prevented by early mobilization of the mandible. Advantages of closed reduction include simplicity, decreased operative time, and avoidance of damage to adjacent structures [2]. Disadvantages of maxillomandibular xa­tion include inability to directly visualize the
G. Spinelli · F. Arcuri · D. Valente · T. Agostini (*) Department of Maxillo Facial Surgery, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy e-mail: info@giuseppespinelli.it
reduced fracture, need to keep the patient on a liquid diet, and difculties with speech and res­piration [3].
Closed reduction of mandibular fractures can adversely affect bone, muscles, synovial joints, and periarticular connective tissues. The effects of immobilization on bone have been recognized in the orthopedic literature for many years as “disuse osteoporosis.” Rigid xation of the man­dible refers to a form of treatment that consists of applying xation to adequately reduce the fracture and also permit active use of the man­dible during the healing process [4]. The four basic principles are (1) anatomical reduction, (2) stable xation, (3) atraumatic surgical technique, and (4) postoperative active function.
31.2 Principles ofSurgical
Treatment
The timing of surgery is still controversial in the literature. Some studies have suggested immedi­ate surgery; other reports have supported to wait the decrease of the edema of the soft tissues before operating. The diagnosis is performed by plain lm imaging sometimes supplemented by CT. An orthopantomogram radiograph is avail­able in most hospital emergency departments and is the initial radiograph of choice for any patient with suspected mandibular fracture [5].
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 D. Duscher, M. A. Shiffman (eds.), Regenerative Medicine and Plastic Surgery,
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31.2.1 Surgical Technique
Intermaxillary xation is placed prior to reducing a fracture. This allows for use of the occlusion to aid in anatomical reduction of the fracture. Use of intermaxillary screws or full-arch bars com­bined with maxillomandibular xation are the preferred methods. They maintain the occlusion postoperatively with elastic bands as needed dur­ing physiotherapy. They are usually removed after 4weeks postoperatively.
The surgical approach depends on the site of the fracture. Either a transoral, vestibular, or transfacial approach may be performed. A facial approach provides excellent access but also pro­duces a facial scar and adds the risk of damage to the facial nerve. Most fractures, excluding those of the condyle, can easily be approached through a transoral incision [6].
A subperiosteal dissection with a periosteal elevator provides adequate access for reduction of the fracture and placement of xation. Attention should be given to avoid damage to the mental nerve, which exists the mental foramen near the apices of the premolar teeth. If additional exposure is needed, the nerve can be released by gently scoring the periosteum surrounding the nerve. Bone-reducing forceps are often helpful in reducing the fracture while adapting the bone plate. This also provides interfragmentary com­pression, making primary bone healing more likely.
The smallest bone plate that will provide ade­quate stability under functional loads during the healing period is chosen. The intermaxillary xa­tion that aided reduction of the fractures during plating is removed after the xation is applied. A soft diet is recommended for at least 4 weeks after miniplate xation. It is important during the postoperative period to regain preinjury function, including maximal mouth opening, with active physiotherapy [7]. An overview of the different procedures is as follows.
dimensions because of their design, and if they are not contoured properly, they are unable to produce compression. It is important to avoid compressing oblique fractures. They also require bicortical screw engagement to produce even compression along the fracture line [
6].
31.2.3 Reconstruction Plates
Reconstruction plates are recommended for com­minuted fractures and also for bridging continu­ity gaps. These plates are rigid and have corresponding screws with a diameter of 2.3–
3.0mm. Reconstruction plates can be adapted to the underlying bone and contoured in three dimensions. A problem that may be associated with conventional reconstruction plates is loosen­ing of the screws during the healing process lead­ing to instability of the fracture [7].
31.2.4 Locking Reconstruction Plates
In 1987, Raveh etal. [8] introduced the titanium hollow-screw osteointegrated reconstruction plate (THORP). This system achieves stability between the screw and plate by insertion of an expansion screw into the head of the bone screw. Locking plate/screw systems offer advantages over conventional reconstruction plates.
These plates function as internal xators by achieving stability by locking the screw to the plate and allow greater stability as compared to conventional plates. Fewer screws are required to maintain stability. The most signicant advan­tage of this type of system is that it becomes unnecessary for the plate to intimately contact the underlying bone in all areas. As the screws are tightened, they will not draw the plate and underlying bone toward each other [9].
31.2.5 Lag Screw Fixation
31.2.2 Compression Plates
Compression plates cause compression at the fracture site making primary bone healing more likely. These plates can be bent in only two
Lag screws can provide osteosynthesis of man­dibular fractures. They work well in oblique frac­tures and require a minimum of two screws. The lag screw engages the opposite cortex while t­ting passively in the cortex of the outer bone
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segment. This can be accomplished by using a true lag screw or by overdrilling the proximal cortex. This causes compression of the osseous segments and provides the greatest rigidity of all xation techniques. The lag screws can be placed through the opposing cortices between the men­tal foramen and inferior to the teeth [10].
31.2.6 Miniplates
Miniplates typically refer to small plates with a screw diameter of 2.0 mm. These plates have been shown to be effective in treating mandibu­lar fractures [11]. Typically a superior and infe­rior plate is required for adequate xation. An advantage of these plates is that they are stable enough to obviate the need for maxillomandibu­lar xation.
They are less likely to be palpable, which reduces the need for subsequent plate removal. Typically screws are placed monocortically but may be placed bicortically when positioned along the inferior border of the mandible. A minimum of two screws should be placed in each osseous segment [12].
31.2.7 Bioresorbable Plates
Bioresorbable plates are manufactured from varying amounts of materials including polydiox­anone (PDS), polyglycolic acid, and polylactic acid. Complications associated with these plates include inammation and foreign body-type reactions. The common complication which we encountered during their use was screw head fracture during tightening. Consideration may be given for use in pediatric patients with the under­standing of the possible complications [13].
gations in a study have shown a good stability of the 3D plates in the osteosynthesis of mandibular fractures without major complications. The thin
1.0mm connecting arms of the plate allow easy adaptation to the bone without distortion. The free areas between the arms permit good blood supply to the bone [14, 15].
31.3 Complications
Several factors can inuence the incidence of surgical complications including inappropriate surgical technique, patient’s medical status, substance abuse, concomitant injuries, and fracture location and type. Complications include postoperative malocclusion, infection and wound dehiscence, nonunion/malunion, nerve injury, scars, teeth damage, and TMJ dis­order [16, 17].
Complication rates vary between studies. Paza et al. [18] reported a total complication rate of 20% with a low reoperation rate (3%). Siddiqui etal. [19] reported a higher rate of postoperative complications (58.1%), and Bormann etal. [20] described a 15% complication rate.
Complications following mandible fracture repair may be the result of the severity of the original injury, the surgical treatment, or patient non-compliance with the postoperative restric­tion. Complications related to mandibular frac­tures present challenges to even the most experienced trauma surgeon.
The consequences of complications may include problems in anatomic form (aesthetic deformity) or residual functional discomfort. Complication rates have improved since the early days of wire xation, but even open reduction and internal xation can produce undesirable results [19, 20].
31.2.8 Three-Dimensional Miniplates
These miniplates are based on the principle that when a geometrically closed quadrangular plate is secured with bone screws, it creates stability in three dimensions. The smallest structural compo­nent of a 3D plate is an open cube or a square stone. Clinical results and biomechanical investi-
31.3.1 Infections
It is the most common complication after man­dibular fractures. A signicant delay in treatment has also been associated with an increase in infection rates. Other factors include mobility of the bony segments across the fracture site or loosening of screws after osteosynthesis. Poor
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plate adaptation, inadequate cooling during drilling, or placing the screw in the fracture line itself can lead to postoperative infection.
Leaving a damaged tooth in the line of frac­ture can also lead to an increased incidence of complications. Clinical signs are cellulitis, abscess formation, stula, osteomyelitis, and rarely necrotizing fasciitis.
Clinical examination and plain radiography assess the status of the hardware. CT is appropri­ate when there is concern that the infection involves the neck. Specimens for bacterial cul­ture and sensitivity studies should be done for antibiotic therapy.
Complication rates vary between studies: Ellis and Walker [21] reported a high infection rate (25%). Iizuka and Lindqvist [12] described an infection rate of 6.6%. Fox and Kellman [15] reported a lower rate of local wound infection and dehiscence (2.9%), whereas Seemann etal. [22] described an incidence of 5.9%.
The treatment of infected fractures involves (1) incision and drainage, (2) irrigations of the wounds, (3) systemic antibiotics, (4) removal of devitalized teeth/bone/hardware, and (5) new xation of the fracture.
31.3.2 Nonunion
Nonunion is the failure of a fracture to unite and requiring additional treatment to achieve frac­ture union. Mobility is the major cause of non­union. Infection, mobility, systemic disease, advanced age, and mandibular atrophy are con­tributing factors. The reoperation rate for non­union varies between studies. Maloney et al. [23] described a rate of 6.31%, whereas Bochlogyros [24] described an incidence of
3.9%. Haug and Schwimmer [25] described a rate of 3.2%, while Mathog etal. [26] reported a rate of 9%.
Debridement of the fracture fragments; bone grafting, usually from the iliac crest; and rigid xation with internal or external xation are the treatments of choice [2326].
31.3.3 Malocclusion
Improper alignment of the fracture fragments results in malocclusion and facial asymmetry. Malunions occur for at least one of several rea­sons: (1) inadequate occlusal and osseous reduc­tion during surgery, (2) inadequate application of internal hardware, and (3) inadequate stability. Other contributors to fracture nonunion include impaired healing capacity secondary to comor­bidities, tobacco use, and infection.
Signicant malunion of the mandible will pro­duce asymmetry and/or functional disturbances and can only be resolved through planned oste­otomies [20, 22].
Treatment strategies vary from patient to patient and with each surgeon’s experience in using different techniques. Comprehensive man­agement of malocclusion and malunion requires a full orthognathic workup. Standard osteotomies are performed at a different site from the mal­union for restoration of preinjury occlusion [27].
31.3.4 Nerve Injury
Sensory nerve injury (inferior alveolar and men­tal nerves) commonly occurs with mandibular fractures. In 11–59% of displaced mandibular fractures, there is sensory nerve injury at diagno­sis. Causes of inferior alveolar or mental nerve injury are displaced fractures, delay in treatment, and improper use of drill or screws.
According to the literature, the overall preva­lence of sensory disturbance after treatment of mandibular fractures is variable (53.8–76.1%) [28, 29].
Facial nerve dysfunction can result from man­dibular trauma. Damage of the facial nerve after temporal bone fractures can lead to paralysis. Condylar dislocations can cause facial nerve injury distal to the stylomastoid foramen. Injury to the facial nerve branches usually takes place iatrogenically during surgical treatment, though lateral displacement of the condyle can cause facial nerve injury.
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The marginal mandibular branch is the one usually injured. The surgical anatomy of this branch has been well described by Dingman, and meticulous dissection under the platysma in the region of the facial artery with identication of the branches of the marginal mandibular nerve can prevent injury to this nerve which varies between 0 and 48% [30].
31.3.5 Scars
Transfacial approaches to open reduction and internal xation can lead to external scarring. Massages of the area with silicone topical gel are advocated to improve the appearance of the scar. Wounds contaminated by road debris like tar often produce pigmented scars that may improve with surgical treatment.
31.3.6 Teeth Damage
The immediate posttraumatic dentition status requires reliable evaluation for therapeutic man­agement as well as the preinjury dental status of the upper and lower jaws recording the missing teeth. Osteosynthesis with screws can cause dam­age to the roots of the teeth with subsequent risk of tooth infection in addition to loss of vitality. A possible injury should be immediately referred to the dentist. Other dental injuries (coronal frac­ture, root canal, subluxation) can result from direct trauma [22, 27, 31].
31.3.7 Temporomandibular Joint
(TMJ) Disorders
Mandibular fracture can cause delayed TMJ derangement (limitation of mouth opening, pain during the movement, swelling) both on the non­fractured side and on the fractured side of the mandible. The physiokinesis therapy is manda­tory especially after treatment of fractures of the mandibular condyle.
In some cases arthrocentesis with intra­articular inltration of hyaluronic acid and arthroscopy can help solve the disorders. Rarely, posttraumatic ankylosis requires surgical inter­vention and removal of the ankylotic block [32].
31.4 Discussion
Our data include 389 patients (258 males [66.3%] and 131 females [33.7%]) treated surgically for mandibular fracture between January 2000 and December 2011 in our Department. The mean age of patients was 28.7years with a range of 17 to 54years.
Daily abuse of alcohol was detected in 98 cases (25.2%); 82 patients reported drug abuse (21%). The average time between the accident and the surgery was 2.5days. Fifty-three patients developed postoperative complications (overall complication rate: 13.6%) which were divided into major complications requiring return to the operating room (7.4%) and minor complications managed in the outpatient clinic (6.2%).
Twenty-one patients (5.4%) reported maloc­clusion and ve patients developed nonunion (1.3%). The reoperation rate to manage maloc­clusion and nonunion was 1.9%. The rest of the group was managed conservatively in the outpa­tient clinic by prolonged guiding elastic therapy and orthodontic treatment.
Thirty-two patients reported postoperative infection (8.2%). Seventeen patients (4.3%) pre­sented a dehiscence of the surgical wound which required a prolonged antibiotic therapy and the subsequent removal of the miniplates at least 45days postoperatively with the resolution of the complication.
The rest of the group experienced minor com­plications; they were managed in the outpatient clinic by incision and drainage, irrigation of the wound, and prolonged antimicrobial therapy which solved the condition.
The complications reported in our experience included postoperative malocclusion, infection, wound dehiscence, nonunion, and reoperative
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surgery [33]. Regarding postoperative infection, our rate was lower (8.2%) compared with other investigations. Ellis and Walker [21] reported a higher infection rate (25%) and an overall com­plication rate of 28%. Iizuka and Lindqvist [12] described an infection rate of 6.6%.We had a
4.3% rate of wound dehiscence that was similar to previously published studies.
Fox and Kellman [15] reported a lower rate of local wound infection and dehiscence (2.9%), whereas Seemann et al. [22] described an inci­dence of 5.9%. The reoperation rate for maloc­clusion and nonunion was 1.9% which is in line with our studies.
31.5 Conclusions
The global incidence of screw loosening, wound dehiscence, plate exposure, infection, reopera­tion, and plate removal vary among studies; how­ever an increased rate of complications is demonstrated in patients with substance abuse or medical diseases.
Proper surgical technique (aseptic procedure, frequent intraoperative irrigation, realignment of the fracture, immobilization of the bone) associ­ated with a strict follow-up (antibiotic, diet restriction) and early recognition of postopera­tive complication are mandatory for a good prognosis.
Acknowledgment Financial Disclosure and Products: None of the authors has a nancial interest in any of the products, devices, or drugs mentioned in this manuscript.
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Pradhan R, Mohammad S, Kohli M, Sinha VP, Shankar R, Agarwal A. An epidemiological study on pattern and incidence of mandibular fractures. Plast Surg Int. 2012;2012:834364.
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6. Passeri LA, Ellis E 3rd, Sinn DP. Complications of non-rigid xation of mandibular angle fractures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1993;51:382–4.
7. Gutta R, Tracy K, Johnson C, James LE, Krishnan DG, Marciani RD. Outcomes of mandible fracture treatment at an academic tertiary hospital: A 5-year analysis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;72:550–8.
8. Raveh J, Vuillemin T, Ladrach K, Roux M, Sutter F.Plate osteosynthesis of 367 mandibular fractures. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 1987;15:244–53.
9. Soderholm AL, Lindqvist C, Skutnabb K, Rahn B.Bridging of mandibular defects with two different reconstruction systems: an experimental study. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1991;49:1098–105.
10. Niederdellman H, Shetty V.Solitary lag screw osteo­synthesis in the treatment of fractures of the angle of the mandible: a retrospective study. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1987;80(1):68–74.
11. Forrest CR. Application of minimal-access tech­niques in lag screw xation of fractures of the anterior mandible. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1999;104:2127–34.
12. Iizuka T, Lindqvist C.Rigid internal xation of frac­tures in the angular region of the mandible: an analy­sis of factors contributing to different complications. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1993;91(2):265–71.
13. Laughlin RM, Block MS, Wilk R, Malloy RB, Kent JN.Resorbable plates for the xation of mandibular fractures: a prospective study. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;65(1):89–96.
14. Farmand M. Experiences with the 3-D miniplate osteosynthesis in mandibular fractures. Fortschr Kiefer Gesichtschir. 1996;41:85–7.
15. Fox AJ, Kellman RM. Mandibular angle fractures: two-mini plate xation and complications. Arch Facial Plast Surg. 2003;5(6):464–9.
16. Odom EB, Snyder-Warwick AK.Mandible Fracture Complications and Infection: The Inuence of Demographics and Modiable. Factors Plast Reconstr Surg. 2016;138(2):282e–9e.
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18. Paza AO, Abuabara A, Passeri LA.Analysis of 115 mandibular angle fractures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66(1):73–6.
19. Siddiqui A, Markose G, Moos KF, McMahon J, Ayoub AF.One miniplate versus two in the management of mandibular angle fractures: a prospective randomised study. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2007;45(3):223–5.
20. Bormann KH, Wild S, Gellrich NC, Kokemüller H, Stühmer C, Schmelzeisen R, Schön R.Five-year ret­rospective study of mandibular fractures in Freiburg,
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Germany: incidence, etiology, treatment, and compli­cations. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;67(6):1251–5.
21. Ellis E 3rd, Walker L.Treatment of mandibular angle fractures using two non compression miniplates. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1994;52(10):1032–6.
22. Seemann R, Schicho K, Wutzl A, Poeschl WP, Köhnke R, Kinast B, Brunner J, Krennmair G, Ewers R, Klug C. Complication rates in the operative treatment of mandibular angle fractures: a 10-yearretrospective. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2010;68(3):647–50.
23. Maloney PL, Lincoln RE, Coyne CP. A protocol for the management of compound mandibular fractures based on the time from injury to treatment. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;59(8):879–84.
24. Bochlogyros P. Non-union of fractures of the man­dible. J Maxillofac Surg. 1985;13:189–93.
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27. Toma VS, Mathog RH, Toma RS, Meleca RJ. Transoral versus extra-oral reduction of man­dible fractures: A comparison of complication rates and other factors. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;128(2):215–9.
28. Iizuka T, Lindquist C. Sensory disturbances associ­ated with rigid internal xation of mandibular frac­tures. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1991;49:1264–8.
29. Marchena JM, Padwa BL, Kaban LB.Sensory abnor­malities associated with mandibular fractures: inci­dence and natural history. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1998;56:822–5.
30. Dingman RO, Grabb WC. Surgical anatomy of the mandibular ramus of the facial nerve based on the dissection of 100 facial halves. Plast Reconstr Surg. 1962;29:266–72.
31. Ramakrishnan J, Shingleton A, Reeves D, Key JM, Vural E. The effects of molar tooth involve­ment in mandibular angle fractures treated with rigid xation. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2009;140(6):845–8.
32. Nabil Y. Evaluation of the effect of different mandibular fractures on the temporomandibu­lar joint using magnetic resonance imaging: ve years of follow-up. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2016;45(11):1495–9.
33. Spinelli G, Lazzeri D, Arcuri F, Valente D. Management of mandibular angle fractures by two conventional 2.0-mm miniplates: a retrospective study of 389 patients. Agostini T Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr. 2016;9(3):206–10.
Use ofPorcine Urinary Bladder
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Matrix (UBM-ECM) intheHead andNeck Region
BruceA.Kraemer andAmandaGryniewiczRowe
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32.1 Introduction
The ultimate goal for head and neck wound reconstruction is restoration of a scarless, dura­ble, symmetrical, and cosmetically normal appearance which has good color match, tissue mobility, and function. The use of extracellular matrix (ECM) wound devices has provided topi­cal wound treatment options and enhanced heal­ing for wounds that previously were considered amenable to only more complex surgical recon­structive procedures [1, 2]. These ECM wound devices promote healing via a process of con­structive remodeling wherein the body replaces the wound device with healed tissue(s) much like what was previously present. Because this heal­ing process requires time for the new tissue for­mation, specic wounds such as intra- and extra-oral or alimentary wounds are still best left to standard one-stage ap reconstruction. While some practitioners have used these devices as a primary reconstructive modality [3], in our expe­rience we have found UBM-ECM wound devices have optimal utility in an adjunctive role in extra­mucosal head and neck reconstructions in medi­cally challenging patients who are poor surgical
B. A. Kraemer (*) · A. G. Rowe Division ofPlastic Surgery, Department ofSurgery, St. Louis University School ofMedicine, St. Louis, MO, USA e-mail: bruce.kraemer@health.slu.edu;
amanda.rowe@health.slu.edu
candidates. This chapter reviews our clinical experience with these devices over the last 6 years of wound device use (NB—excluded from this review is UBM-ECM use in burn wound management).
32.2 Clinical Series
In this retrospective review of our initial 373 wounds treated with UBM-ECM, 35 patients with 40 wounds had the device applied to the head and neck region with 2 patients having mul­tiple sites treated. There were 14 males and 21 females with ages ranging from 23 to 82years. The treatment of 19 open forehead and scalp region wounds was the most common device use with nasal reconstruction; both traumatic (4 cases) and post Mohs surgery reconstruction (6 cases) comprising the next largest group. Treatment of facial scarring was done in eight wounds: severe acne scarring, scarring after a windshield injury or animal attack, old post­traumatic facial scarring, self-inicted cheek scars, and a non-healing radiated cheek wound. One ear large keloid excision wound, one intra­oral antral stula wound in a smoker, and a nal post-radiation intraoral scarring patient com­pleted the series.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 D. Duscher, M. A. Shiffman (eds.), Regenerative Medicine andPlastic Surgery,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19958-6_32
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B. A. Kraemer and A. G. Rowe
32.2.1 Results
This is a review of use of a new wound treatment modality over a 6-year period. As the amount and formulation of the UBM-ECM device used was based on our accumulated clinical experience, there was not consistent application of the formu­lations used or the amounts placed, and new device formulations were used as they became clinically available. As such, comparisons of heal­ing rates and time to closure among these patients has little foundation, but an appreciation of the lessons learned in an attempt to establish best practice seemed warranted. Forehead and scalp wound patients as a group often needed several device applications with initial patients having alternate day powder placed and later patient have larger volumes of several formulations placed less frequently. A secondary skin graft was done in nine of these wounds. One patient in particular with a large radiated full-thickness skull wound and metastatic angiosarcoma healed poorly and died from his underlying disease with his open wound. Nasal wounds had good healing, and the forehead ap patients liked the result with a stan­dard two-stage transfer that did not need later sec­ondary thinning or revision. The ear keloid patient had some thickening of the healed ear scar return at 2 years, but the adjacent involved neck scar region appeared normal. Facial scarring wound patients showed improvements with open wounds, but the one patient with contracted old closed wounds showed little improvement in tissue for­mation or softening of the contracted skin. The two intraoral uses where the antral closure patient picked the device out of her wound and the radi­ated patient removed the bolster stent at postop­erative day 2.5 had no long-term improvement.
32.3 Discussion
The robust blood supply of the head and neck region makes possible many local tissue recon­structive options not possible in other body regions. However, the frequency of skin cancers of this region in an ever-aging population with
numerous medical comorbidities can result in patients who have exhausted standard local treat­ment options leaving them with few suitable local treatment options. While these patients may accept a suggested complex surgical procedure, they often do so reluctantly after being told there are no other possible treatment options. We have found that UBM-ECM wound devices have allowed us to do less complex procedures in some patients who are mindful of the increased total time of healing and pleased that they are given new options for treatment in contrast to extensive surgery. Others have found these devices useful in the head and neck region treating ap donor sites [
4].
Proper wound bed preparation is an essential prerequisite for optimal healing with the use of ECM wound devices. Obtaining a wound bed void of necrotic tissue and devitalized bone must be achieved prior to placement of the UBM-ECM wound device. The wound device must also be apposed to and retained undisturbed in the wound bed so that the device can be replaced by the host’s neo-tissue formation. These prerequisites are simi-
®
lar to Integra
Bilayer Matrix Wound Dressing use which has been available for use in the head and neck region since the mid-1980s [524]. However, the UBM-ECM wound devices have enhanced utility in that they been found to perform well in the face of bacterial contamination [1, 2, 25, 26]. Wounds that have a wound bed primarily com­prised of bone are the most challenging tissue as one must get to a bony layer that has punctate bleeding without damaging the underlying struc­tures such as the brain. It is important to not induce further bone injury with debridement so for larger debridements, while electric burrs may be used for the majority of the debridement, the nal debride­ment layer is removed with rongeurs or curettes. It is also important for the outer margin of the bone debridement to extend under the soft tissue margin of the wound by several millimeters so there is adequate peripheral soft tissue at the margin to interact with the newly placed ECM wound device. Neurosurgical scalp wound patients, especially those with older meningioma procedures, can be problematic in that the variety of materials that have been historically used for treating the cranial