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30 Reconstruction ofPost-Traumatic Maxillary Ridges Using aRadial Forearm Free Flap andAllogeneic…
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3. Wijbenga JG, Schepers RH, Werker PM, Witjes
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Postoperative Complications
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ofMandibular Fracture
Management
GiuseppeSpinelli, FrancescoArcuri,
DomenicoValente, andTommasoAgostini
31
31.1 Introduction
Mandible fractures account for 35–80% of all
maxillofacial fractures. Etiologic factors of
facial fracture are variable and depend on
regional and social characteristics. In a review
of more than ten thousand patients, mandibular
fracture is most common in patients aged
between 18 and 24years and seen four times as
frequent in male patients compared with female
patients. Mechanism of injury is commonly
assault, followed by motor vehicle accidents
and falls [1].
When considering between open and closed
reduction of mandibular fractures, the advantages should be weighed against the disadvantages. Considerations include the site and
characteristics of the fracture and the morbidities of the treatment. Unwanted results including bony ankylosis or decreased mouth opening
can be prevented by early mobilization of the
mandible. Advantages of closed reduction
include simplicity, decreased operative time,
and avoidance of damage to adjacent structures
[2]. Disadvantages of maxillomandibular xation include inability to directly visualize the
G. Spinelli · F. Arcuri · D. Valente · T. Agostini (*)
Department of Maxillo Facial Surgery, Azienda
Ospedaliero-Universitaria Careggi, Florence, Italy
e-mail: info@giuseppespinelli.it
reduced fracture, need to keep the patient on a
liquid diet, and difculties with speech and respiration [3].
Closed reduction of mandibular fractures can
adversely affect bone, muscles, synovial joints,
and periarticular connective tissues. The effects
of immobilization on bone have been recognized
in the orthopedic literature for many years as
“disuse osteoporosis.” Rigid xation of the mandible refers to a form of treatment that consists
of applying xation to adequately reduce the
fracture and also permit active use of the mandible during the healing process [4]. The four
basic principles are (1) anatomical reduction, (2)
stable xation, (3) atraumatic surgical technique,
and (4) postoperative active function.
31.2 Principles ofSurgical
Treatment
The timing of surgery is still controversial in the
literature. Some studies have suggested immediate surgery; other reports have supported to wait
the decrease of the edema of the soft tissues
before operating. The diagnosis is performed by
plain lm imaging sometimes supplemented by
CT. An orthopantomogram radiograph is available in most hospital emergency departments and
is the initial radiograph of choice for any patient
with suspected mandibular fracture [5].
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
D. Duscher, M. A. Shiffman (eds.), Regenerative Medicine and Plastic Surgery,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19958-6_31
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31.2.1 Surgical Technique
Intermaxillary xation is placed prior to reducing
a fracture. This allows for use of the occlusion to
aid in anatomical reduction of the fracture. Use
of intermaxillary screws or full-arch bars combined with maxillomandibular xation are the
preferred methods. They maintain the occlusion
postoperatively with elastic bands as needed during physiotherapy. They are usually removed
after 4weeks postoperatively.
The surgical approach depends on the site of
the fracture. Either a transoral, vestibular, or
transfacial approach may be performed. A facial
approach provides excellent access but also produces a facial scar and adds the risk of damage to
the facial nerve. Most fractures, excluding those
of the condyle, can easily be approached through
a transoral incision [6].
A subperiosteal dissection with a periosteal
elevator provides adequate access for reduction
of the fracture and placement of xation.
Attention should be given to avoid damage to the
mental nerve, which exists the mental foramen
near the apices of the premolar teeth. If additional
exposure is needed, the nerve can be released by
gently scoring the periosteum surrounding the
nerve. Bone-reducing forceps are often helpful in
reducing the fracture while adapting the bone
plate. This also provides interfragmentary compression, making primary bone healing more
likely.
The smallest bone plate that will provide adequate stability under functional loads during the
healing period is chosen. The intermaxillary xation that aided reduction of the fractures during
plating is removed after the xation is applied. A
soft diet is recommended for at least 4 weeks
after miniplate xation. It is important during the
postoperative period to regain preinjury function,
including maximal mouth opening, with active
physiotherapy [7]. An overview of the different
procedures is as follows.
dimensions because of their design, and if they
are not contoured properly, they are unable to
produce compression. It is important to avoid
compressing oblique fractures. They also require
bicortical screw engagement to produce even
compression along the fracture line [
6].
31.2.3 Reconstruction Plates
Reconstruction plates are recommended for comminuted fractures and also for bridging continuity gaps. These plates are rigid and have
corresponding screws with a diameter of 2.3–
3.0mm. Reconstruction plates can be adapted to
the underlying bone and contoured in three
dimensions. A problem that may be associated
with conventional reconstruction plates is loosening of the screws during the healing process leading to instability of the fracture [7].
31.2.4 Locking Reconstruction Plates
In 1987, Raveh etal. [8] introduced the titanium
hollow-screw osteointegrated reconstruction
plate (THORP). This system achieves stability
between the screw and plate by insertion of an
expansion screw into the head of the bone screw.
Locking plate/screw systems offer advantages
over conventional reconstruction plates.
These plates function as internal xators by
achieving stability by locking the screw to the
plate and allow greater stability as compared to
conventional plates. Fewer screws are required to
maintain stability. The most signicant advantage of this type of system is that it becomes
unnecessary for the plate to intimately contact
the underlying bone in all areas. As the screws
are tightened, they will not draw the plate and
underlying bone toward each other [9].
31.2.5 Lag Screw Fixation
31.2.2 Compression Plates
Compression plates cause compression at the
fracture site making primary bone healing more
likely. These plates can be bent in only two
Lag screws can provide osteosynthesis of mandibular fractures. They work well in oblique fractures and require a minimum of two screws. The
lag screw engages the opposite cortex while tting passively in the cortex of the outer bone

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segment. This can be accomplished by using a
true lag screw or by overdrilling the proximal
cortex. This causes compression of the osseous
segments and provides the greatest rigidity of all
xation techniques. The lag screws can be placed
through the opposing cortices between the mental foramen and inferior to the teeth [10].
31.2.6 Miniplates
Miniplates typically refer to small plates with a
screw diameter of 2.0 mm. These plates have
been shown to be effective in treating mandibular fractures [11]. Typically a superior and inferior plate is required for adequate xation. An
advantage of these plates is that they are stable
enough to obviate the need for maxillomandibular xation.
They are less likely to be palpable, which
reduces the need for subsequent plate removal.
Typically screws are placed monocortically but
may be placed bicortically when positioned along
the inferior border of the mandible. A minimum
of two screws should be placed in each osseous
segment [12].
31.2.7 Bioresorbable Plates
Bioresorbable plates are manufactured from
varying amounts of materials including polydioxanone (PDS), polyglycolic acid, and polylactic
acid. Complications associated with these plates
include inammation and foreign body-type
reactions. The common complication which we
encountered during their use was screw head
fracture during tightening. Consideration may be
given for use in pediatric patients with the understanding of the possible complications [13].
gations in a study have shown a good stability of
the 3D plates in the osteosynthesis of mandibular
fractures without major complications. The thin
1.0mm connecting arms of the plate allow easy
adaptation to the bone without distortion. The
free areas between the arms permit good blood
supply to the bone [14, 15].
31.3 Complications
Several factors can inuence the incidence of
surgical complications including inappropriate
surgical technique, patient’s medical status,
substance abuse, concomitant injuries, and
fracture location and type. Complications
include postoperative malocclusion, infection
and wound dehiscence, nonunion/malunion,
nerve injury, scars, teeth damage, and TMJ disorder [16, 17].
Complication rates vary between studies. Paza
et al. [18] reported a total complication rate of
20% with a low reoperation rate (3%). Siddiqui
etal. [19] reported a higher rate of postoperative
complications (58.1%), and Bormann etal. [20]
described a 15% complication rate.
Complications following mandible fracture
repair may be the result of the severity of the
original injury, the surgical treatment, or patient
non-compliance with the postoperative restriction. Complications related to mandibular fractures present challenges to even the most
experienced trauma surgeon.
The consequences of complications may
include problems in anatomic form (aesthetic
deformity) or residual functional discomfort.
Complication rates have improved since the early
days of wire xation, but even open reduction
and internal xation can produce undesirable
results [19, 20].
31.2.8 Three-Dimensional Miniplates
These miniplates are based on the principle that
when a geometrically closed quadrangular plate
is secured with bone screws, it creates stability in
three dimensions. The smallest structural component of a 3D plate is an open cube or a square
stone. Clinical results and biomechanical investi-
31.3.1 Infections
It is the most common complication after mandibular fractures. A signicant delay in treatment
has also been associated with an increase in
infection rates. Other factors include mobility of
the bony segments across the fracture site or
loosening of screws after osteosynthesis. Poor

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plate adaptation, inadequate cooling during
drilling, or placing the screw in the fracture line
itself can lead to postoperative infection.
Leaving a damaged tooth in the line of fracture can also lead to an increased incidence of
complications. Clinical signs are cellulitis,
abscess formation, stula, osteomyelitis, and
rarely necrotizing fasciitis.
Clinical examination and plain radiography
assess the status of the hardware. CT is appropriate when there is concern that the infection
involves the neck. Specimens for bacterial culture and sensitivity studies should be done for
antibiotic therapy.
Complication rates vary between studies: Ellis
and Walker [21] reported a high infection rate
(25%). Iizuka and Lindqvist [12] described an
infection rate of 6.6%. Fox and Kellman [15]
reported a lower rate of local wound infection
and dehiscence (2.9%), whereas Seemann etal.
[22] described an incidence of 5.9%.
The treatment of infected fractures involves
(1) incision and drainage, (2) irrigations of the
wounds, (3) systemic antibiotics, (4) removal of
devitalized teeth/bone/hardware, and (5) new
xation of the fracture.
31.3.2 Nonunion
Nonunion is the failure of a fracture to unite and
requiring additional treatment to achieve fracture union. Mobility is the major cause of nonunion. Infection, mobility, systemic disease,
advanced age, and mandibular atrophy are contributing factors. The reoperation rate for nonunion varies between studies. Maloney et al.
[23] described a rate of 6.31%, whereas
Bochlogyros [24] described an incidence of
3.9%. Haug and Schwimmer [25] described a
rate of 3.2%, while Mathog etal. [26] reported a
rate of 9%.
Debridement of the fracture fragments; bone
grafting, usually from the iliac crest; and rigid
xation with internal or external xation are the
treatments of choice [23–26].
31.3.3 Malocclusion
Improper alignment of the fracture fragments
results in malocclusion and facial asymmetry.
Malunions occur for at least one of several reasons: (1) inadequate occlusal and osseous reduction during surgery, (2) inadequate application of
internal hardware, and (3) inadequate stability.
Other contributors to fracture nonunion include
impaired healing capacity secondary to comorbidities, tobacco use, and infection.
Signicant malunion of the mandible will produce asymmetry and/or functional disturbances
and can only be resolved through planned osteotomies [20, 22].
Treatment strategies vary from patient to
patient and with each surgeon’s experience in
using different techniques. Comprehensive management of malocclusion and malunion requires
a full orthognathic workup. Standard osteotomies
are performed at a different site from the malunion for restoration of preinjury occlusion [27].
31.3.4 Nerve Injury
Sensory nerve injury (inferior alveolar and mental nerves) commonly occurs with mandibular
fractures. In 11–59% of displaced mandibular
fractures, there is sensory nerve injury at diagnosis. Causes of inferior alveolar or mental nerve
injury are displaced fractures, delay in treatment,
and improper use of drill or screws.
According to the literature, the overall prevalence of sensory disturbance after treatment of
mandibular fractures is variable (53.8–76.1%)
[28, 29].
Facial nerve dysfunction can result from mandibular trauma. Damage of the facial nerve after
temporal bone fractures can lead to paralysis.
Condylar dislocations can cause facial nerve
injury distal to the stylomastoid foramen. Injury
to the facial nerve branches usually takes place
iatrogenically during surgical treatment, though
lateral displacement of the condyle can cause
facial nerve injury.

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The marginal mandibular branch is the one
usually injured. The surgical anatomy of this
branch has been well described by Dingman, and
meticulous dissection under the platysma in the
region of the facial artery with identication of
the branches of the marginal mandibular nerve
can prevent injury to this nerve which varies
between 0 and 48% [30].
31.3.5 Scars
Transfacial approaches to open reduction and
internal xation can lead to external scarring.
Massages of the area with silicone topical gel are
advocated to improve the appearance of the scar.
Wounds contaminated by road debris like tar
often produce pigmented scars that may improve
with surgical treatment.
31.3.6 Teeth Damage
The immediate posttraumatic dentition status
requires reliable evaluation for therapeutic management as well as the preinjury dental status of
the upper and lower jaws recording the missing
teeth. Osteosynthesis with screws can cause damage to the roots of the teeth with subsequent risk
of tooth infection in addition to loss of vitality. A
possible injury should be immediately referred to
the dentist. Other dental injuries (coronal fracture, root canal, subluxation) can result from
direct trauma [22, 27, 31].
31.3.7 Temporomandibular Joint
(TMJ) Disorders
Mandibular fracture can cause delayed TMJ
derangement (limitation of mouth opening, pain
during the movement, swelling) both on the nonfractured side and on the fractured side of the
mandible. The physiokinesis therapy is mandatory especially after treatment of fractures of the
mandibular condyle.
In some cases arthrocentesis with intraarticular inltration of hyaluronic acid and
arthroscopy can help solve the disorders. Rarely,
posttraumatic ankylosis requires surgical intervention and removal of the ankylotic block [32].
31.4 Discussion
Our data include 389 patients (258 males [66.3%]
and 131 females [33.7%]) treated surgically for
mandibular fracture between January 2000 and
December 2011 in our Department. The mean
age of patients was 28.7years with a range of 17
to 54years.
Daily abuse of alcohol was detected in 98
cases (25.2%); 82 patients reported drug abuse
(21%). The average time between the accident
and the surgery was 2.5days. Fifty-three patients
developed postoperative complications (overall
complication rate: 13.6%) which were divided
into major complications requiring return to the
operating room (7.4%) and minor complications
managed in the outpatient clinic (6.2%).
Twenty-one patients (5.4%) reported malocclusion and ve patients developed nonunion
(1.3%). The reoperation rate to manage malocclusion and nonunion was 1.9%. The rest of the
group was managed conservatively in the outpatient clinic by prolonged guiding elastic therapy
and orthodontic treatment.
Thirty-two patients reported postoperative
infection (8.2%). Seventeen patients (4.3%) presented a dehiscence of the surgical wound which
required a prolonged antibiotic therapy and the
subsequent removal of the miniplates at least
45days postoperatively with the resolution of the
complication.
The rest of the group experienced minor complications; they were managed in the outpatient
clinic by incision and drainage, irrigation of the
wound, and prolonged antimicrobial therapy
which solved the condition.
The complications reported in our experience
included postoperative malocclusion, infection,
wound dehiscence, nonunion, and reoperative

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surgery [33]. Regarding postoperative infection,
our rate was lower (8.2%) compared with other
investigations. Ellis and Walker [21] reported a
higher infection rate (25%) and an overall complication rate of 28%. Iizuka and Lindqvist [12]
described an infection rate of 6.6%.We had a
4.3% rate of wound dehiscence that was similar
to previously published studies.
Fox and Kellman [15] reported a lower rate of
local wound infection and dehiscence (2.9%),
whereas Seemann et al. [22] described an incidence of 5.9%. The reoperation rate for malocclusion and nonunion was 1.9% which is in line
with our studies.
31.5 Conclusions
The global incidence of screw loosening, wound
dehiscence, plate exposure, infection, reoperation, and plate removal vary among studies; however an increased rate of complications is
demonstrated in patients with substance abuse or
medical diseases.
Proper surgical technique (aseptic procedure,
frequent intraoperative irrigation, realignment of
the fracture, immobilization of the bone) associated with a strict follow-up (antibiotic, diet
restriction) and early recognition of postoperative complication are mandatory for a good
prognosis.
Acknowledgment Financial Disclosure and Products:
None of the authors has a nancial interest in any of the
products, devices, or drugs mentioned in this manuscript.
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Use ofPorcine Urinary Bladder
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Matrix (UBM-ECM) intheHead
andNeck Region
BruceA.Kraemer andAmandaGryniewiczRowe
32
32.1 Introduction
The ultimate goal for head and neck wound
reconstruction is restoration of a scarless, durable, symmetrical, and cosmetically normal
appearance which has good color match, tissue
mobility, and function. The use of extracellular
matrix (ECM) wound devices has provided topical wound treatment options and enhanced healing for wounds that previously were considered
amenable to only more complex surgical reconstructive procedures [1, 2]. These ECM wound
devices promote healing via a process of constructive remodeling wherein the body replaces
the wound device with healed tissue(s) much like
what was previously present. Because this healing process requires time for the new tissue formation, specic wounds such as intra- and
extra-oral or alimentary wounds are still best left
to standard one-stage ap reconstruction. While
some practitioners have used these devices as a
primary reconstructive modality [3], in our experience we have found UBM-ECM wound devices
have optimal utility in an adjunctive role in extramucosal head and neck reconstructions in medically challenging patients who are poor surgical
B. A. Kraemer (*) · A. G. Rowe
Division ofPlastic Surgery, Department ofSurgery,
St. Louis University School ofMedicine,
St. Louis, MO, USA
e-mail: bruce.kraemer@health.slu.edu;
amanda.rowe@health.slu.edu
candidates. This chapter reviews our clinical
experience with these devices over the last
6 years of wound device use (NB—excluded
from this review is UBM-ECM use in burn
wound management).
32.2 Clinical Series
In this retrospective review of our initial 373
wounds treated with UBM-ECM, 35 patients
with 40 wounds had the device applied to the
head and neck region with 2 patients having multiple sites treated. There were 14 males and 21
females with ages ranging from 23 to 82years.
The treatment of 19 open forehead and scalp
region wounds was the most common device use
with nasal reconstruction; both traumatic (4
cases) and post Mohs surgery reconstruction (6
cases) comprising the next largest group.
Treatment of facial scarring was done in eight
wounds: severe acne scarring, scarring after a
windshield injury or animal attack, old posttraumatic facial scarring, self-inicted cheek
scars, and a non-healing radiated cheek wound.
One ear large keloid excision wound, one intraoral antral stula wound in a smoker, and a nal
post-radiation intraoral scarring patient completed the series.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
D. Duscher, M. A. Shiffman (eds.), Regenerative Medicine andPlastic Surgery,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19958-6_32
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B. A. Kraemer and A. G. Rowe
32.2.1 Results
This is a review of use of a new wound treatment
modality over a 6-year period. As the amount and
formulation of the UBM-ECM device used was
based on our accumulated clinical experience,
there was not consistent application of the formulations used or the amounts placed, and new
device formulations were used as they became
clinically available. As such, comparisons of healing rates and time to closure among these patients
has little foundation, but an appreciation of the
lessons learned in an attempt to establish best
practice seemed warranted. Forehead and scalp
wound patients as a group often needed several
device applications with initial patients having
alternate day powder placed and later patient have
larger volumes of several formulations placed less
frequently. A secondary skin graft was done in
nine of these wounds. One patient in particular
with a large radiated full-thickness skull wound
and metastatic angiosarcoma healed poorly and
died from his underlying disease with his open
wound. Nasal wounds had good healing, and the
forehead ap patients liked the result with a standard two-stage transfer that did not need later secondary thinning or revision. The ear keloid patient
had some thickening of the healed ear scar return
at 2 years, but the adjacent involved neck scar
region appeared normal. Facial scarring wound
patients showed improvements with open wounds,
but the one patient with contracted old closed
wounds showed little improvement in tissue formation or softening of the contracted skin. The
two intraoral uses where the antral closure patient
picked the device out of her wound and the radiated patient removed the bolster stent at postoperative day 2.5 had no long-term improvement.
32.3 Discussion
The robust blood supply of the head and neck
region makes possible many local tissue reconstructive options not possible in other body
regions. However, the frequency of skin cancers of
this region in an ever-aging population with
numerous medical comorbidities can result in
patients who have exhausted standard local treatment options leaving them with few suitable local
treatment options. While these patients may accept
a suggested complex surgical procedure, they
often do so reluctantly after being told there are no
other possible treatment options. We have found
that UBM-ECM wound devices have allowed us
to do less complex procedures in some patients
who are mindful of the increased total time of
healing and pleased that they are given new options
for treatment in contrast to extensive surgery.
Others have found these devices useful in the head
and neck region treating ap donor sites [
4].
Proper wound bed preparation is an essential
prerequisite for optimal healing with the use of
ECM wound devices. Obtaining a wound bed void
of necrotic tissue and devitalized bone must be
achieved prior to placement of the UBM-ECM
wound device. The wound device must also be
apposed to and retained undisturbed in the wound
bed so that the device can be replaced by the host’s
neo-tissue formation. These prerequisites are simi-
®
lar to Integra
Bilayer Matrix Wound Dressing use
which has been available for use in the head and
neck region since the mid-1980s [5–24]. However,
the UBM-ECM wound devices have enhanced
utility in that they been found to perform well in
the face of bacterial contamination [1, 2, 25, 26].
Wounds that have a wound bed primarily comprised of bone are the most challenging tissue as
one must get to a bony layer that has punctate
bleeding without damaging the underlying structures such as the brain. It is important to not induce
further bone injury with debridement so for larger
debridements, while electric burrs may be used for
the majority of the debridement, the nal debridement layer is removed with rongeurs or curettes. It
is also important for the outer margin of the bone
debridement to extend under the soft tissue margin
of the wound by several millimeters so there is
adequate peripheral soft tissue at the margin to
interact with the newly placed ECM wound device.
Neurosurgical scalp wound patients, especially
those with older meningioma procedures, can be
problematic in that the variety of materials that
have been historically used for treating the cranial
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