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152 Chemistry and Biology of Beta-Lactams
O
2
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HH
Ar
N
O
O
2
H2N NH
N
Ar
1
EtOH
2
H2N
O
HH
Ar
2
N
Ar
1
O
HH
Ar
N
O
O
2
H2N NH
N
Ar
1
EtOH
2
H2N
O
HH
Ar
2
N
Ar
1
O
HH
HH
Ar
N
O
O
2
H2N NH
N
EtOH
2
H2N
O
Ar
2
N
= phenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, dimethoxyphenyl
Ar
1
Ar
= phenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2-thiophenyl, pyridine isomers
SCHEME 4.29 Preparation of Amino β-Lactams.
Dimethyl-substituted pyrrole β-lactams with cis- and trans-structures were prepared by reacting
3-amino β-lactams with hexane diione in the presence of bismuth nitrate as the catalyst (Scheme 4.32).
A nucleophilic attack by the amino group to the ketone was the rst step in this process. A dehydration
and a second nucleophilic attack were responsible for the pyrrole formation. This reaction produced
pyrroles with all types of β-lactams irrespective of the nature of the rings and/or stereochemistry of the
ring. Bismuth nitrate and iodine were the most efcient catalysts. The reaction gave products at room
temperature in the presence of solvents like ethanol, methanol, dichloromethane, and dichloroethane.
Microwave irradiation method was applied successfully, and pyrroles were obtained within 5 min. No
cleavage of the β-lactam rings was observed under the reaction conditions.
The 3-amino β-lactams derived from polyaromatic compounds demonstrated anticancer activity like
their acetoxy analogues. On the other hand, the pyrroles were weakly active. Numerous chemical modications can be performed using the primary amines described here. Therefore, synthesis of many new
153Polyaromatic Beta-Lactams
2
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HH
Ar
H2N
O
Ar1= phenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, dimethoxyphenyl
= phenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2-thiophenyl, pyridine derivatives
Ar
2
+
N
MeO
O
SCHEME 4.30 Synthesis of Pyrroles.
TABLE 4.1
Preparation of 3-Pyrrole-Substituted β-Lactams
Entry Bi-salts (10 mol %) Yield (%)
1 BiCl
2 Bi(OTf)
3 BiI
4 Bi5O(OH)9(NO3)
5 BiBr
6 Bi(NO3)3.5H2O 88
7 No catalyst 0
3
3
3
3
OMe
Bi(NO
3
.5H
3)3
EtOH
HH
Ar
N
O
2
O
2
N
62
65
48
50
50
compounds with diverse structures is possible. Some of these new molecules may demonstrate better
anticancer activities.
4.13 Conclusion
Numerous polyaromatic β-lactams were prepared following available synthetic methods for the mono-
cyclic compounds. The reactions produced products stereoselectively. A few catalytic methods were
TABLE 4.2
Synthesis of 3-Pyrrole-Substituted β-Lactams
Entry Bi(NO3)3.5H2O (10 mol %), Microwave Yield (%)
1 30 62
2 25 65
3 20 60
4 15 70
5 10 80
6 5 90
7 2 55
8 1 37
154 Chemistry and Biology of Beta-Lactams
O
OMe
MeO
H
H
H
O
1
O
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TABLE 4.3
Microwave-Induced Synthesis of 3-Pyrrole-Substituted β-Lactams
Entry Solvent (1 mL) Yield (%)
1 Water 71
2 THF 75
3 Ethanol 69
4 Toluene 49
5 Methanol 73
6 Dichloromethane 58
7 DMSO 74
8 Neat 92
.5H
Bi(NO
3)3
SCHEME 4.31 Mechanism of Pyrrole Synthesis.
N
2
Ar
1
+
N
Ar
O
2
H
O
2
O
O
O
Bi(NO
EtOH
3)3
.5H
H
O
O
HH
Ar
H2N
O
O
2
2
N
Ar
1
N
O
H
H
N
O
HH
Ar
2
N
Ar
1
Ar
N
Ar
2
SCHEME 4.32
applied for the synthesis of some of these compounds. Remarkably, a few β-lactams showed anticancer
activity in vitro and in vivo. The mechanism of action of these β-lactams indicated selective pathways for
their anticancer actions. Despite the progress of β-lactam research, the use of these types of molecules as
anticancer agents under clinical situation has not been explored. Therefore, the methods and compounds
as reported herein may nd applications in chemistry, biology, and clinical research.
155Polyaromatic Beta-Lactams
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Acknowledgments
AD is grateful to CEA-Grenoble, Joseph Fourier University, University of Göttingen, and University of
California, Los Angeles, for their support. BKB is grateful to the US NIH, the US NCI, Texas Kleberg
Foundation, Stevens Institute of Technology, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, University
of Texas-Pan American, and Community Health Systems of Texas for their nancial and moral support
to his research. AD and BKB are also grateful to their current employer, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd
Un iversit y.
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156 Chemistry and Biology of Beta-Lactams
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Manipulation of β-L a c t a m ”, CRC. 2012, 88, 781–1007; For our related contributions in this area, see:
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Assisted Reaction”, Heterocycles. 2003, 61, 97–100.
10. (a) Banik B. K., Suhendra M., Banik I., Becker F. F., “Indium/Ammonium Chloride Mediated Selective
Reduction of Aromatic Nitro Compounds: Practical Synthesis of 6-Aminochrysene”, Synthetic
Communications. 2000, 30, 3745–3754; (b) Banik B. K., Banik I., Becker F. F., “Indium/Ammonium
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188–193; (c) Banik B. K., Banik I., Samajdar S., Wilson M., “Facile Synthesis of Biologically Active
Heterocycles by Indium-Induced Reactions of Aromatic Nitro Compounds in Aqueous Ethanol”,
Heterocycles. 2004, 63, 283–296.
11. (a) Banik B. K., Mukhopadhyay C., Venkatraman M. S., Becker F. F., “A Facile Reduction of Aromatic
Nitro Compounds to Aromatic Amines by Samarium and Iodine”, Tetrahedron Lett. 1998, 39, 7343–
7346; (b) Basu M. K., Becker F. F., Banik B. K., “Ultrasound-Promoted Highly Efcient Reduction of
Aromatic Nitro Compounds to the Aromatic Amines by Samarium/Ammonium Chloride”, Tetrahedron
Lett. 2000, 41, 6551–6554; (c) Basu M. K., Banik B. K., “Samarium-Mediated Barbier Reaction of
Carbonyl Compounds”, Tetrahedron Lett. 2001, 42, 187–189; (d) Banik B. K., Banik I., Aounallah N.,
Castillo M., “Samarium-Induced Convenient Reductive Dimerization of Aromatic Ketones in Aqueous
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158 Chemistry and Biology of Beta-Lactams
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2000, 53, 2769–2773; (c) Banik B. K., Samajdar S., Banik I., “Indium-Induced Facile Rearrangement of
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14. (a) Bandyopadhyay D., Xavier M., Banik B. K., Highly Stereoselective β-Lactam Synthesis via the
Staudinger Reaction Using Polyaromatic Imines”, Heterocycl. Commun. 2009, 229–231; (b) Sanchez
G., Bandyopadhyay D., Jaggi S., Gonzalez C. G., Banik B. K., An Expeditious Synthesis of 3-Amino
β-Lactams Derived from Polyaromatic Compounds, Heterocycl. Commun. 2009, 323–325; (c) Aguilar
H., Banik B. K., Stereoselectivity of 3,3-Disubstituted β-Lactam Formation via Staudinger Reaction.
Heterocycl. Commun. 2009, 15, 365–368; (d) Bandyopadhyay D., Banik B. K., Microwave-Induced
Stereoselectivity of β-Lactam Formation with Dihydrophenanthrenyl Imines via Staudinger Reaction”,
Helv. Chim. Acta. 2010, 298–302; (e) Rodriguez R., Banik B. K., Diasteroselectivity in β-Lactam
Formation with Conjugated Imines”, Heterocycl. Lett. 2011, 31–34; (f) Banik, I., Becker, F. F., Banik,
B. K., Stereoselective Synthesis of β-Lactams Derived From Chrysenyl Imine, Heterocycl. Lett.
2011, 79–81; (g) Solano R., Mukherjee S., Banik B. K., Asymmetric Synthesis of β-Lactam Using
S- Citronellal”, Heterocycl. Lett. 2011, 97–98; (h) Mohamed H., Banik B. K., Vinyl β-Lactams:
Mechanism of Their Formation”, Heterocycl. Lett. 2011, 23–26; (o) Banik B. K., Aguilar H., Cordova
D., Unprecedented Stereocontrol of β-Lactam Formation Derived From N-Cinnamylidene Arylamine”,
Heterocycles. 2008, 11, 2321–2329; (j) Banik I., Becker F. F., Banik B. K., Microwave-Induced
Stereospecic Synthesis of β-Lactams Derived from Polyaromatic Imines: Inuence of Multicyclic
Rings at the Nitrogen, Heterocycl. Lett. 2011, 55–57; (k) Bandyopadhyay D., Yanez M. A., Banik B. K.,
Microwave-Induced Stereoselectivity of β-Lactam Formation, Effects of Solvents”, Heterocycl. Lett.
2011, 65– 67; (l) Bandyopadhyay D., Cruz J., Banik B. K., Microwave-Induced Synthesis of 3-Pyrrole
Substituted β-Lactams Via Bismuth Nitrate-Catalyzed Reaction”, Tetrahedron Symposium-in-Print.
2012, 68, 10686–10695; (m) Bose A. K., Banik B. K., Newaz S. N., Manhas M. S., Vinyl β-Lactams:
Convenient Elaboration of The Thienamycin Side Chain”, Synlett. 1993, 897–899; (n) Banik B. K.,
Manhas M. S., Newaz S. N., Bose A. K., Facile Preparation of Carbapenem Synthons Via MicrowaveInduced Rapid Reaction”, Bioorg. & Med. Chem. Lett. 1993, 3, 2363–2368; (o) Manhas M. S., Banik B.
K., Mathur A., Vincent J., Bose A. K., Microwave-Assisted Synthesis of Vinyl β-Lactam: Synthons for
Natural Products”, Tetrahedron. 2000, 56, 5587–5601.
15. Banik B. K., Barakat K. J., Wagle D. R., Manhas M. S., Bose A. K., “Microwave Assisted Rapid and
Simplied Hydrogenation”, J. Org. Chem. 1999, 64, 5746 –5753. Also see: (a) Bose A. K., Manhas M.
S., Ganguly S. N., Sharma A. H., Banik B. K., “MORE Chemistry for Less Pollution; Applications for
Process Development”, Synthesis. 2002, 1578–1591; (b) Lidstrom P., Tierney J. P. Eds., “Microwave-
Assisted Organic Synthesis”, Blackwell, Oxford, 2004; (c) Mukhopadhyay C., Becker, F, F., Banik B,
K., “A Novel Catalytic Role of Molecular Iodine in the Oxidation of Benzylic Alcohols: MicrowaveAssisted Reaction”, J. Chem. Res. 2001, 28 –31.
16. Banik, B. K., Lecea, B., Arrieta, A., Cozar, A., Cossio, F. P., “On the Stereodivergent Behavior Observed
in The Staudinger Reaction Between Methoxyketene and (E)-N-Arylbenzylidenearyl Amines”, Angew.
Chem. Int. Edn. 2007, 46, 3028–3031.
17. (a) Ames B. N., McCann J., Yamasaki E., “Method for Detecting Carcinogens and Mutagens with the
Salmonella/mammalian Microsome Mutagenicity Test”, Mutation Research, 1975, 31, 347–364; (b)
Maron D. M., Ames B. N., “Methods for the Salmonella Mutagenicity Test”, Mutat Res. 1983, 113,
173 –215.
18. Fraser-Reid B., “Some Progeny of 2, 3-Unsaturated Sugars-They Little Resemble Grandfather Glucose:
Ten Years Later”, Acc. Chem. Res. 1985, 18, 347–354.
19. Borer B. C., Balogh D. W., “An Asymmetric Synthesis of 3-Hydroxy-β-Lactam by Ketene-Imine
Cycloaddition: Utilization of Chiral Ketenes from Carbohydrates”, Tetrahedron Lett. 1991, 32,
1039 –10 40.
159Polyaromatic Beta-Lactams
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20. (a) Banik, B. K., Manhas, M. S., Bose, A. K., “Enantiopure Hydroxy β-Lactams via Glycosylation”,
Tetrahedron Lett. 1997, 38, 5077–5080; (b) Banik B. K., Zegrocka O., Manhas M. S., Bose A. K.,
“Enantiomerically Pure β-Lactams with the Thienamycin Side Chain via Glycosylation”, Heterocycles.
1997, 46, 173–176; (c) Banik B. K., Manhas M. S., Bose A. K., “Stereospecic Glycosylation via Ferrier
Rearrangement for Optical Resolution”, J. Org. Chem., 1994, 59, 4714–4716; (d) Banik B. K., Zegrocka
O., Manhas M. S., Bose A. K., “A Facile Iodine-catalyzed Glycosylation: Enantiomerically Pure
β-Lactams with the Thienamycin Side Chain”, Heterocycles. 2009, 78, 2443–2454; (e) Banik B. K.,
Manhas M. S., “Iodine-Catalyzed Stereospecic Glycosylation of Alcohols: Enantiopure β-L a c t a m s”,
Tetrahedron Symposium-in-Print. 2012, 68, 10769–10779.
21. (a) Banik B. K., Jayaraman M., Srirajan V., Manhas M. S., Bose, A. K., “Rapid Synthesis of β-Lactams
as Intermediates for Natural Products via Eco-friendly Reactions”, J. Ind. Chem. Soc. 1997, 74, 951–
972; (b) Bose A. K., Banik B. K., Lavlinskaia N., Jayaraman M., Manhas, M. S., “MORE Chemistry
in a Microwave”, ChemTech. 1997, 27(9), 18–24; (c) Bose A. K., Banik B. K., Barakat K. J., Manhas
M. S., “Simplied Rapid Hydrogenation Under Microwave Irradiation: Selective Transformations
of β-Lactams”, Synlett. 1993, 8, 575–576; (d) Banik B. K., Manhas M. S., Robb E. W., Bose, A. K.,
“Environmentally Benign Chemistry: Microwave-Induced Stereocontrolled Synthesis of β-lactam
Synthons”, Heterocycles. 1997, 44, 405– 417; (e) Bose A. K., Manhas M. S., Banik B. K., Robb E. W.,
“Microwave-Induced Organic Reaction Enhancement (MORE) Chemistry: Techniques for Rapid, Safe,
and Inexpensive Synthesis”, Res. Chem. Intermed. 1994, 20, 1–20; (f) Banik B. K., Manhas M. S.,
Barakat K. J., Bose A. K., “Microwave-induced Organic Reaction Enhancement Chemistry: Convenient
Synthesis of Enantiopure Hydroxy-β-Lactams”, Tetrahedron Lett. 1992, 33, 3603–3606.
22. Das and Banik have contributed signicantly in this area, for example, see: (a) Das, A., Banik, B. K.,
“Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future Trends”, Elsevier, 2021; (b)
Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Foundational Principles of Microwave Chemistry”, In Microwaves in Chemistry
Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 3–26; (c) Das, A., Banik, B.
K., “Microwave Equipment for Chemistry”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals,
Methods and Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 27–59; (d) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Modelling and
Interpreting Microwave Effects”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods
and Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 61–104; (e) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-assisted Synthesis of
Oxygen and Sulfur Heterocycles”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods
and Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 107–142; (f) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-assisted Synthesis
of Nitrogen Heterocycles”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and
Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 143–198; (g) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Reductions and Oxidations Using
Microwave Chemistry”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and
Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 199–244; (h) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Enzymes-mediated Reactions
Using Microwave Chemistry”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and
Future Trends, Elsevier, 2021, 245–281; (i) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Sterilization Method in Chemistry,
Biology and Medicine”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future
Tre n d s, Elsevier, 2021, 285–328; (j) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-enhanced CVD Processes for
Diamond Synthesis”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future
Tre n d s, Elsevier, 2021, 329–374; (k) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Future Trends in Microwave Chemistry
and Biology”, In Microwaves in Chemistry Applications: Fundamentals, Methods and Future Trends,
Elsevier, 2021, 375–384; (l) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-induced Conversion of Electromagnetic
Energy into Heat Energy in Different Solvents: Synthesis of β-Lactams”, Chem. J. Mold. 2022, 17(1),
62–66; (m) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-Induced Biocatalytic Reactions Toward Medicinally
Important Compounds”, Phys. Sci. Rev. 2021, 507–538; (m) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-Induced
Biocatalytic Reactions Toward Medicinally Important Compounds”, In Organocatalysis: A Green
Tool for Sustainable Developments, De Gruyter, 2021, 57–88; (n) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Microwave-
Induced Surface-Mediated Highly Efcient Regioselective Nitration of Aromatic Compounds: Effects
of Penetration Depth”, Asian J. Chem. 2021, 33(9), 2203–2206; (o) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “MicrowaveInduced Catalytic Transfer Hydrogenation in Different Solvents Toward Optically Active Hydroxy Beta
Lactams: Effects of Penetration Depth”, Asian J. Org. Med. Chem. 2023 (In press); (q) Das, A., Banik,
B. K., “Microwave in Research-More Miracles (Perceptive)”, Asian J. Org. Med. Chem. 2023 (In press);
(r) Das, A., Banik, B. K., “Expeditious Synthesis of Oxygen and Sulfur Heterocycles by Microwave”,
Asian J. Microw. Ind. Chem. 2023 (In p ress).
160 Chemistry and Biology of Beta-Lactams
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23. (a) Banik B., K; Adler D; Nguyen P., Srivastava N., “Bismuth Nitrate-Mediated Stereospecic
Glycosylation of Alcohols”, Heterocycles. 2003, 61, 101–104; (b) Srivastava N., Banik B. K., “Bismuth
Nitrate-Catalyzed Versatile Michael Reactions”. J. Org. Chem. 2003, 68, 2109–2114; (c) Banik B. K.,
Banik I., Renteria M., Dasgupta S., “Bismuth Nitrate-Catalyzed Straightforward Synthesis of Pyrroles”,
Tetrahedron Lett. 2005, 46, 2643–2645.
24. (a) Shaikh, A., L; Orlando, E., Banik, B. K., “An Efcient Synthesis of Optically Active trans -(3R, 4R)-3
-Acet oxy-4 -aryl -1-(c hryse n-6-y l)aze tidin -2-on es Using (+)-Car-3-ene as a Chiral Auxiliary”, Helv.
Chim. Acta. 2011, 94, 2188–2193; (b) Shaikh, A. L., Banik, B., K. Helv. Chim. Acta. 2012, 95, 839.
25. Brieva R., Crich J. Z., Sih C. J., “Chemoenzymatic Synthesis of the C-13 Side Chain of Taxol: Optically-
Active 3-Hydroxy-4-phenyl β-Lactam Derivatives”, J. Org. Chem. 1993, 58, 1068–1075.
26. Das, A., Yadav, R. N., Banik, B. K., “A Novel Baker’s Yeast-Mediated Microwave-Induced Reduction
of Racemic 3-Keto-2-Azetidinones: Facile Entry to Optically Active Hydroxy β-Lactam Derivatives”,
Curr. Organocatal. 2022, 9(2), 195 –198.
27. (a) Chabner B. A., Allegra C. J., Curt G. A., Calabien P., “Anticancer Drugs. In The Pharmacological
Basis of Therapeutics”, 9th ed. (French Version); (b) Hardman J. G., Limbird L. E., Molinoff P. B.,
Ruddon R. W., Goodman Gillman A., Eds., McGraw-Hill International (UK) Ltd, Berkshire, 1998,
1225–1277; (c) Elledge S. J., “Cell Cycle Checkpoints: Preventing an Identity Crisis”, Science. 1996,
274, 164–1672; (d) Shah M. A., Schwartz G. K., “Cell Cycle-Mediated Drug Resistance: An Emerging
Concept in Cancer Therapy”, 2001, 7, 2168–2181; (e) Liu M. J., Yue Y. K., Wang Z., Wong R. N. S.,
“Methyl Protodioscin Induces G2/M Arrest and Apoptosis in K562 Cells with the Hyperpolarization
of Mitochondria”, Cancer Lett. 2005, 224, 229–241; (f) Lin C. F., Lo Y. H., Hsieh M. C., Chen Y. H.,
Wang J. J., Wu M. J., “Cytotoxicities, Cell Cycle and Caspase Evaluations of 1, 6-diaryl-3(Z)-hexen-1,
5-diyenes, 2-(6-aryl-3(Z)-hexen-1,5-diynyl)anilines and Their Derivatives”, Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2005,
13, 3565 –3575.
28. (a) Green D. R., Reed J. C., “Mitochondria and Apoptosis”, Science. 1998, 281, 1309–1312; (b) Ohi R.,
Gould K. L., “Regulating the Onset of Mitosis”, Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 1999, 11, 267–273; (c) Johnstone
R. W., Ruei A. A., Lowe S. W., “Apoptosis: A Link Between Cancer Genetics and Chemotherapy”,
Cell. 2002, 108, 153–164; (d) Roginsky A. B., Ding X. Z., Singh B., Ujiki M., Salabat M. R., Chan C.
Y., Bell R. H., Collin P., Adrian T. E., “Frondanol-A5 From Cucumaria Frondosa Induces Cell Cycle
Arrest and Apoptosis in Pancreatic Cancer Cells”, Surg. Oncol. 2004, 199, S91; (e) Song T. Y., Hsu S. L.,
Yen G. C., “Induction of Apoptosis in Human Hepatoma Cells by Mycelia of Antrodia Camphorata in
Submerged Culture”, J. Ethnopharmacol. 2005, 100, 158–167; (f) Hsu M. J., Chao Y., Chang Y. H., Ho
F. M., Huang L. J., Huang Y. L., Luh T.Y., Chen C. P., Lin W. W., “Cell Apoptosis Induced by a Synthetic
Carbazole Compound LCY-2-CHO is Mediated Through Activation of Caspase and Mitochondrial
Pa t hways ”. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2005, 70, 102–112; (g) Lin X., Ramamurthi K., Mishima M., Kondo
A., Christen R. D., Howell S. B., “P53 Modulates the Effect of Loss of DNA Mismatch Repair on the
Sensitivity of Human Colon Cancer Cells to the Cytotoxic and Mutagenic Effects of Cisplatin”, Can.
Res. 2001, 61, 1508–1516.
29. (a) Banik B. K., Chapa M., Marquez J., Cardona M., A. “Remarkable Iodine-Catalyzed Protection of
Carbonyl Compounds”, Tetrahedron Lett. 2005, 46, 2341–2343; (b) Samajdar S., Basu M. K., Becker
F. F., Banik B. K., “A New Molecular Iodine-Catalyzed Thioketalization of Carbonyl Compounds:
Selectivity and Scope”, Tetrahedron Lett. 2001; 42, 4425–4428; (c) Basu M. K., Samajdar S., Becker F.
F., Banik B. K., “A New Molecular Iodine-Catalyzed Acetalization of Carbonyl Compounds”, Synlett.
2002, 319 –321.
5
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Microwave and Ultrasound in Beta-Lactam Chemistry
Aparna Das1 and Bimal Krishna Banik
1
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, College of Sciences and Human Studies,
Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar 31952, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
‘2
Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, College of Sciences and
Human Studies, Deanship of Research Development, Prince Mohammad
Bin Fahd University, Al Khobar 31952, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
*Corresponding authors: Bimal Krishna Banik, email: bimalbanik10@gmail.
com; bbanik@pmu.edu.sa; Aparna Das, email: aparnadasam@gmail.com
2
5.1 Microwave-Induced Chemistry
5.1.1 Microwave Radiation and Heating
Microwave radiation has a frequency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. The crucial properties of microwave radiation are numerous. For example, it radiates electromagnetic energy with a shorter wavelength;
it goes through the ionosphere without reection; it penetrates in a straight line, and it reects by metal
surfaces; it attenuates within short distances; it passes moderate rain, snow, cloud, and smoke; it penetrates glass and plastics; and it absorbs water.
Many years ago, the Bunsen burner was the heat source used for synthetic chemistry. Later, hot plates
and oil baths were used. These heating methods have a few well-known disadvantages: long heating
time, ununiform temperature distribution, uncontrolled reactions, trouble in the cooling process, and
losses of high heat. Synthesis by microwave has become a popular subject in the 21st century. Percy
Spencer invented the microwave machine and used it for the rst time in 1940. The rst paper on the use
of microwave to accelerate chemical reaction was published in 1986. In the early years, reactions were
mostly performed in a domestic microwave oven without measuring pressure or temperature. Domestic
household microwave was employed for synthesis for the rst 15–20 years. Since then, many automated
and advanced microwave ovens have become available. In general, microwave reactors and domestic
microwave ovens for reactions operate at a frequency of 2.45 GHz.
5.1.2 Principles of Microwave Heating
Microwave heating is due to the efcient heating of materials by dielectric heating process. The heating by microwave was analyzed by researchers. This heating effect followed four mechanisms: dipolar
polarization, ionic polarization, electronic or atomic polarization, and interfacial polarization [1–11].
Polar substrates with dipole moment can align with the oscillating electromagnetic power, and this
causes a dipolar rotation. Because of the friction and dielectric loss, energy is lost as heat. The conduction mechanism occurs from the dissolved charged species. The charged particles oscillate due to the
inuence of the electric part of the microwave radiation. The random oscillations help the collisions of
charged species with the surrounding atoms or molecules, which produce heat energy. The absorption
of microwave by this pathway is more efcient and quicker compared with the polarization mechanism.
In the third process, an induction of dipole moment initiates due to the change of the location of the
DOI: 10.1201/9780367816339-5
161
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