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Table22.16 Drugs associated withorofacial pain.
Acetazolamide Amitriptyline Articaine Chlorpropamide Colistin
Ergotamine Gonadotropin- releasing
hormone analogues
Labetalol Mefloquine Methysergide Monoamine oxidase
Nicotinic acid Nitrofurantoin Pentamidine Phenytoin Prilocaine
Propofol Propranolol Prothionamide Stilbamidine Streptomycin
Sulphonylureas Sulthiame Tolbutamide Tricyclic antidepressants Trilostane
Vincristine
Source: Scully etal.(33)/with permission of International & American Associations for Dental Research.
Hydralazine Interferon alpha Isoniazid
Nalidixic acid
inhibiters
22.5.3 Neuropathy
Trigeminal neuropathy including paraesthesia, hypoesthesia or anaesthesia has been reported
following administration of acetazolamide, sulthiame, vincristine(96), labetalol, interferon α(97),
mefloquine(98) and some protease inhibitors (33, 99). Neurotoxicity has been associated with
some local anaesthetics including prilocaine and articaine(100).
Vinca alkaloids may be associated with the development of orofacial pain, and in rare cases,
some ACEIs may trigger a scalded- type sensation of the oral mucosa(101, 102).
Drugs associated with orofacial pain are listed in Table22.16.
22.5.4 Drug- Induced Movement Disorder
Drug- induced orofacial movement disorders can be broadly categorised into orofacial dyskinesia
and extra- pyramidal reactions(103, 104).
1) Orofacial dyskinesia
Drug- induced involuntary, repetitive and continuous orofacial movements may occur in
response to chronic dopamine receptor blocking. This occurs in the basal ganglia and is often
caused by neuroleptic drugs(105).
These effects usually involve the tongue, lips and mandible and may present in a variety of
ways, including tongue twisting and protrusion; lip puckering and smacking; rapid chewing
movements, orofacial pain, dysarthria and dysphagia. Diagnosis is made following a minimum
of three months of exposure to the inciting medication and persistence of symptoms for longer
than three months following withdrawal of the drug(106).
2) Extrapyramidal reaction
These movements are observed in patients who develop orofacial motor hyperactivity as a result of
certain medications. Facial expression and masticatory muscles are often affected, aswell as other
body sites. Drugs that block dopamine receptions are commonly associated with these orofacial
reactions, presenting as dystonia (sustained, repeated involuntary muscle contractions resulting in
twisting movements or abnormal posture), akathisia (restless movement, often affecting limbs)
and parkinsonism (bradykinesia and tremor, rigidity or postural instability) movements(106).
The reaction can be acute, occurring hours–days after exposure; subacute (weeks after
exposure); or tardive (month after exposure).
Drug- induced movement disorders generally resolve within a few days–months after the
offending medication is withdrawn. In rare cases, the reaction is irreversible and may require
pharmacological or even surgical management(105–107).
Drugs commonly associated with movement disorders are listed in Table22.17.
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22.5 Non-specific Reactions
Table22.17 Drugs implicated inmovement disorders.
Antipsychotics Tardive dyskinesia Haloperidol
Chlorpromazine
Perphenazine
Pimozide
Trifluoperazine
Clozapine
Olanzapine
Risperidone
Antiemetics Tardive dyskinesia Prochlorperazine
Promethazine
Metoclopramide
Antiparkinsonian agents Levodopa
Benztropine
Trihexyphenidyl
Anticonvulsants Akathisia, Tremor,
Parkinsonism, Serotonin
syndrome
Phenytoin
Carbamazepine
Antihistamines Diphenhydramine
Ranitidine
Tricyclic antidepressants Tremor, Serotonin syndrome Amitriptyline
Doxepin
Selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors
Akathisia, Tremor, Serotonin
syndrome
Dystonia, Parkinsonism
Fluoxetine
Fluvoxamine
Paroxetine
Sertraline
Citalopram
Escitalopram
Immunosuppressants Tremor, Parkinsonism Cyclosporin
Tacrolimus
Chemotherapeutic drugs Parkinsonism Cyclophosphamide
Vincristine
Adriamycin
Doxorubicin
Paclitaxel
Etoposide
Prescription stimulants Methylphenidate
Phentermine
Pemoline
Dextroamphetamine
Amphetamines
Diethylpropion
Illicit drugs Methamphetamine
Cocaine
3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(Ecstasy)
399
Source: Adapted from Duma etal.(106).
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400
22.6 Summary
There is a wide range of ADRs that may affect the orofacial region. Some are transient with full
recovery expected when the offending drug is ceased. Others, such as MRONJ, may have severe
and irreversible effects.
It is important that prescribers and patients are aware of the potential adverse effects of
medications recommended so that informed choices about drug therapy can be made.
Additionally, it is important for dental clinicians to be aware of the orofacial manifestations
ofadverse drug effects, so that they can identify these in their patients and be involved in the
management of these conditions.
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Section 6
Disorders ofCell andTissue Growth
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23
Neoplasia: Basic Concepts
Omar Kujan1 and Philip Sloan
1
UWA Dental School, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
2
School of Dental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
2
23.1 Introduction
Many disorders that can affect any part of the body are collectively referred to as cancer. Neoplasms
and malignant tumours are other terms that are used. Cancer is the world’s most significant cause
of mortality, accounting for roughly 10million deaths in 2020(1). The most prevalent in 2020 (in
terms of new cancer cases) were 2.26million breast cases and 2.21million lung cases(1). The rapid
emergence of aberrant cells that proliferate beyond normal bounds and can invade nearby bodily
regions and spread to other organs is one characteristic that marks cancer; this latter process is
known as metastasis. The main reason why people die from cancer is because of widespread
metastases(2).
This chapter discusses the nomenclature of neoplasia and the differences between benign and
malignant neoplasms. Before delving into the distinguishing characteristics of cancer cells, we will
first define the fundamental concepts related to neoplasia.
409
23.2 Nomenclature
Neoplasia, meaning ‘new growth’, refers to the continuous replication of neoplastic cells due to
resistance to normal cell regulation. These cells have some autonomy but still rely on the host for
nutrition and blood supply, and hormone- responsive tissues often require endocrine support(3).
A neoplasm is commonly referred to as a tumour, and the study of tumours is known as oncology (from oncos, ‘tumour’, and logos, ‘study of’). Tumours are classified as benign or malignant,
which is critical for accurately predicting a tumour’s behaviour and prognosis(2).
● A benign tumour with microscopic and gross characteristics suggests it will remain confined and
can be removed locally. Patients with benign tumours are frequently cured of their disease.
However, not all benign tumours are easily excised, and some might cause significant morbidity
or even death, mainly if they are close to a vital structure or organ.
Pathological Basis of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, First Edition. Edited by S. R. Prabhu, Syed Ali Khurram,
Omar Kujan and Merva Soluk Tekkesin.
© 2025 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2025 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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