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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5333_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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Preface
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The first edition of this book entitled Descriptions of Medical QAP Fungi was published in 1992 to provide
all laboratories participating in the Mycology module of the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia
Quality Assurance Program (QAP) with a set of description sheets covering medically important fungi.
Subsequent editions were published by the authors in 2007 and 2016. We now provide an updated fourth
edition which includes new and revised descriptions. We have endeavoured to reconcile current morphological descriptions with more recent genetic data, however nomenclature changes in mycology will be on-going.
To search for current accepted fungal names, go to Index Fungorum (www.indexfungorum.org) and/or
Mycobank (www.mycobank.org).
Morphological descriptions: These descriptions have by necessity been kept brief and many have been based
on previous descriptions by other authors. For further information regarding any of the mycoses or pathogenic fungi mentioned, the reader is referred to the references cited. A glossary of the mycological terminology used is provided, otherwise the reader is referred to Ainsworth and Bisby’s Dictionary of the Fungi (Kirk
et al., 2008).
Fungal phylogeny continues to be refined and nine phylum-level clades are now recognised in the Kingdom
Eumycota: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota,Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota,Zoopagomycota,
Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Basidiomycota and Ascomycota (Ruggiero et al., 2015; Naranjo-Ortiz and
Gabaldon, 2019; de Hoog et al., 2020). Key fungal phyla, orders and genera of medical importance are listed
in Table p1.
Table p1. Key fungal phyla, orders and genera of medical importance.
Kingdom: Chromista
Phylum: Oomycota
Order: Peronosporales Pythium
Kingdom: Eumycota
Phylum: Chytridiomycota
Order: Chytridiales Batrachochytrium
Phylum: Zoopagomycota
Order: Entomophthorales Basidiobolus, Conidiobolus
Phylum: Mucoromycota
Order: Mucorales Apophysomyces, Cunninghamella, Lichtheimia, Mucor, Rhizomucor, Rhizopus,
Saksenaea, Syncephalastrum
Order: Mortierellales Mortierella
Phylum: Ascomycota
Order: Pneumocystales Pneumocystis
Order: Saccharomycetales Candida, Clavispora, Cyberlindnera, Debaryomyces, Diutina, Kluyveromyces,
Magnusiomyces, Meyerozyma, Pichia, Saccharomyces,Torulaspora,
Wickerhamomyces, Yarrowia
Order: Onygenales Dermatophytes - Arthroderma, Epidermophyton, Lophophyton, Microsporum,
Nannizzia, Paraphyton, Trichophyton Dimorphic fungi - Blastomyces, Coccidioides,
Emergomyces, Histoplasma, Paracoccidioides; and Malbranchea, Chrysosporium
Order: Arachnomycetales Onychocola
Order: Eurotiales Arthrographis, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces
Continued
xi
Order: Chaetothyriales Cladophialophora, Exophiala, Fonsecaea, Phialophora, Rhinocladiella, Veronaea
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Order: Dothideales Aureobasidium, Hortaea, Lasiodiplodia, Neoscytalidium
Order: Capnodiales Cladosporium
Order: Pleosporales Alternaria, Bipolaris, Curvularia, Drechslera, Exserohilum, Phoma, Trematosphaeria
Order: Clavicipitales Beauvaria, Paecilomyces, Purpureocillium
Order: Microascales Scopulariopsis, Lomentospora, Scedosporium
Order: Ophiostomatales Sporothrix
Order: Glomerellales Colletotrichum
Order: Diaporthales Phaeoacremonium, Pleurostoma
Order: Sordariales Acrophialophora, Chaetomium, Lecythophora, Madurella, Myrmecridium,
Phialemonium
Order: Hypocreales Acremonium, Cylindrocarpon, Fusarium, Sarocladium, Trichoderma
Order: Venturiales Ochroconis, Verruconis
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Order: Microstromatales Quambalaria
Order: Malasseziales Malassezia
Order: Sporidiobolales Rhodotorula
Order: Tremellales Cryptococcus, Naganishia, Papiliotrema
Order: Trichosporonales Apiotrichum, Cutaneotrichosporon, Trichosporon
Order: Polyporales Schizophyllum
Key morphological characteristics for the identification of moulds
Mucoromycota hyphal characteristics: Mucormycetous fungi have characteristic thin walled, infrequently
septate, multi-nucleate hyphae. Many refer to mucormycetous hyphae as non-septate because they don’t have
true septa with pores, they are one continuous cell. Older cells are separated by solid cross walls and there
is no flow of cytoplasmic material between cells. Thus, coenocytic hyphae are very susceptible to death if
damaged (Fig. p1).
For example, in a biopsy sample there may be only a few hyphal cells ramifying through the tissue. During the
surgical removal and subsequent laboratory processing all may be damaged and become non-viable (Fig. p2).
Frequently the Histopathology laboratory reports numerous non-septate hyphae present consistent with
mucormycosis, and the Microbiology laboratory can’t grow it. More than likely the specimen has been
chopped up, damaging all the hyphae making them non-viable. Mucormycetous fungi rely on rapid
growth and sporulation for survival, most will fill a petri dish within 24 hours, providing there are
viable cells.
Ascomycota hyphal morphology: Includes most common conidial moulds, for example Aspergillus, Fusarium,
Scedosporium etc. Ascomycetous hyphae are multi-nucleate and compartmentalised by septa with simple
pores where cytoplasmic and nuclear migration is not inhibited, i.e. all cytoplasmic contents including nuclei
may flow up and down the hyphal strand. Simple septal pores have woronin bodies that can block the pore
if a hyphal compartment becomes damaged. This is an important survival mechanism for these fungi (Figs.
p3-4). Unlike mucormycetous fungi, you can chop up a mould like Aspergillus, and enough hyphal compart-
ments will remain viable for culture.
Basidiomycota hyphal morphology: Basidiomycetes have septate hyphae with “complex” septal pores
called dolipores, which allow cytoplasmic but not nuclear migration (Fig. p5). Hyphae are dikaryotic (two
nuclei per hyphal compartment - one from each parent cell). Basidiomycetous fungi can often be recognised using a light microscope by the presence of characteristic hyphal clamp connections over the septa.
Clamp connections are specialised hyphal bridges that allow the simultaneous mitosis of two nuclei to
occur in such a position that the dikaryons of compatible nuclei are duplicated in the proper relationship
to each other (Fig. p5).
xii Preface
20 ˜m
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Fig. p1. Coenocytic hyphae are large single cells, that are prone to death if damaged (arrow).
10 ˜m
Fig. p2. Haematoxylin and eosin-stained section of lung tissue showing coenocytic hyphae ramifying through the
tissue. Note: These cells could be easily damaged by laboratory processing and rendered non-viable.
Preface xiii
(a)
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20 ˜m
Fig. p3. Septate hyphae of Aspergillus in lung tissue stained by Grocott-Gomori’s methenamine silver. Like in a
submarine the hyphae are compartmentalised by cross walls (septa) with simple pores that can be closed if one
section becomes damaged.
(b) (c)
Fig. p4. Transmission electron micrographs of an ascomycetous fungus showing (a) hyphae with typical cytoplasmic
organelles, nuclei, vacuoles, mitochondria, and a septum with a central septal pore and associated woronin bodies;
(b) a “simple” septal pore showing characteristic woronin bodies; and (c) a woronin body plugging a pore due to
damage of the adjacent hyphal segment.
xiv
Preface
(a) (b)
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1 ˜m
Fig. p5. Basidiomycetous fungal hyphae showing, (a) transmission electron micrograph of a “complex” septal
pore (dolipore) with a “parenthesome”, a barrier to prevent nuclear migration (photograph courtesy of Stanley
L. Flegler, Michigan State University, USA); and (b) a light microscopic image of a hyphal clamp connection
over a septum.
10 ˜m
Yeast pseudohyphal morphology: Pseudohyphae are a string of elongated blastoconidia formed by
some yeasts that resemble a hypha-like filament, each segment or compartment is just a single yeast
cell (Fig. p6).
Culture characteristics: These are the least reliable as the media and growth conditions play an important
part (Fig. p7).
• Surface texture [glabrous, suede-like, powdery, granular, fluffy, downy, cottony]
• Surface topography [flat, raised, heaped, folded, domed, radial grooved]
• Surface pigmentation [white, cream, yellow, brown, pink, grey, black, etc]
• Reverse pigmentation [none, yellow, brown, red, black, etc]
• Growth rate [colony diameter <5 cm in 14 days or >5 cm in 14 days]
• Growth at 37
o
C, 40oC, 45oC
Mucoromycota sporangia characteristics:
• Arrangement of sporangiospores [multi-spored, sporangiola, merosporangium] (Fig. p8)
• Arrangement of sporangiophores [unbranched often in groups or frequently branched]
• Sporangium shape [pyriform, spherical, flask-shaped, etc]
• Sporangium size [<100 μm diam. or >100 μm diam.]
• Columella [present or absent] (Fig. p8)
• Apophyses [present or absent [ (Fig. p8)
• Sporangiophore height [<0.8 mm or >1 mm]
• Rhizoids [present or absent] (look in the agar)
• Sporangiospore size [<6 μm or >6 μm]
Preface xv
10 ˜m
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10 ˜m
Fig. p6. Budding yeast cells of Candida albicans, elongating to form a filament. Each segment is just a single yeast cell.
Fig. p7. Culture characteristics of Trichophyton species showing different texture, topography and pigmentation.
xvi Preface
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(b) (c) (d)
4
2
1
3
5
15 ˜m
Fig. p8. The presence or absence of columellae (1) and apophyses (3) are key sporangium characteristics: (a) Mucor
has a multi-spored sporangia with a columella (1) with inconspicuous collarettes (2), but no apophysis, whereas
(b) Lichtheimia has a multi-spored sporangium with both a columella and apophysis (funnel-shaped swelling of the
sporangiophore, immediately below the columella); (c) Cunninghamella forms single-celled sporangiola (4);
(d) Syncephalastrum produces merosporangia with the sporangiospores aligned in a row (5).
15 ˜m 15 ˜m 20 ˜m
Ascomycota - Conidial moulds
1. Conidial characteristics:
• Septation [one-celled, two-celled, multi-celled with transverse septa only, or multi-celled with both transverse and longitudinal septa] (Fig. p9)
• Shape [spherical, sub-spherical, pyriform, clavate, ellipsoidal, etc.]
• Size, need a graduated eyepiece [length <10 μm or >10 μm]
• Colour [hyaline or darkly pigmented]
• Wall texture [smooth, rough, verrucose, echinulate]
• How many conidial types present? [i.e. micro and macroconidia]
2. Arrangement of conidia as they are borne on the conidiogenous cells:
• Solitary [single or in balls]
• Catenulate (in chains) [acropetal, youngest conidium at the tip or basipetal, youngest conidium at the base]
(Fig. p10)
3. Growth of the conidiogenous cell:
• Determinant [no growth of the conidiophore after the formation of conidia]
• Sympodial [a mode of conidiogenous cell growth which results in the development of conidia on a geniculate or zig-zag rachis] (Fig. p11)
Preface xvii
(a) (b) (c)
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10 ˜m
(d)
10 ˜m
10 ˜m
Fig. p9. (a) one-celled conidia (ameroconidia), (b) two-celled conidia (didymoconidia), (c) multi-celled conidia with
transverse septa only (phragmoconidia), (d) multi-celled conidia with transverse and longitudinal septa (dictyoconidia).
Also note shape, size, pigmentation, and wall texture.
(a) (b) (c)
20 ˜m
10 ˜m
(d)
10 ˜m
10 ˜m
Fig. p10. Arrangement of conidia (a) solitary; (b) acropetal chain with youngest conidia at the tip (arrows); (c) basipetal
chain from a phialide with the youngest at the base (arrow); (d) basipetal chain from an annellide with the youngest at
the base (arrow).
xviii
20 ˜m
Preface
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(b) (c)
1
Fig. p11. Sympodial (1 - first conidium, 2 - second conidium, 3 - third conidium etc), (a) Beauvaria showing narrow
base sympodial (rachiform) development, (b) Curvularia showing broad base sympodial (raduliform) development
(note the growing conidiophore tip (arrow) with the youngest conidium at the tip), and (c) Trichothecium showing
retrogressive growth, where the conidiophore (arrow) becomes shorter with the successive formation of conidia
(youngest conidium at the base).
3
2
20 ˜m
10 ˜m 20 ˜m
4. Type of conidiogenous cell present:
• Non-specialised
• Phialide [specialised conidiogenous cells that produces conidia in basipetal succession without increasing
in length] (Fig. p12)
• Annellide [specialised conidiogenous cell producing conidia in basipetal succession by a series of short
percurrent proliferations (annellations). The tip of an annellide increases in length and becomes narrower
as each subsequent conidium is formed] (Fig. p12)
5. Thallic conidiogenesis:
A mode of conidial ontogeny where a conidium is formed from a pre-existing hyphal segment or cell, for
example arthroconidia and chlamydospores (Fig. p13).
6. Additional features:
• Hyphal structures [clamps, spirals, nodular bodies, etc.]
• Synnemata (Fig. p14), sporodochia, chlamydospores (Fig. p15), pycnidia and sclerotia (Fig. p16)
• Confirmatory tests for dermatophytes
Preface xix
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