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Herbal Medicine fortheManagement
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ofAnxiety, Depression, andInsomnia
SundayOritsetimenyinOtimenyin
Abstract
The world has advanced in technology, health care, nancial instruments and management, and other aspects of
human endeavors. This advancement has impacted positively and negatively on the human race. Human demands
are insatiable; hence, they crave more and more feats. This
has created a lot of unnecessary pressure on man: the quest
to meet targets, to achieve set goals, and to measure up with
peer groups and pals. These unimaginable pressures have
impacted negatively on the human and sometimes animal
race. Such pressures have led to anxiety, depression, and
sometimes insomnia. These have become a great economic
and social burden. The need to address these burdens has
increased over the years. Affected subjects sort care from
orthodox and traditional medical practitioners. Traditional
medical practitioner uses herbs and other natural products/
methods to manage these conditions (anxiety, depression
and/or insomnia). Herbs used for the management of anxiety, depression, and insomnia have been reported to be rich
in alkaloids and phenolic compounds. Alkaloids with these
activities often contain quercetin, rutin, apigenin, luteolin,
and kaempferol. Extensive research has led to some of the
ndings, and revealed that these alkaloids exhibit their
actions by acting on GABA receptors, serotonin receptors,
monoamine oxidase (MAO), and BDNF expression. These
herbs also alter endocrine, immunological, and monoamine
systems, such as NE, DA, MDA formation, IL-6, BDNF,
and TNF- α levels. These mechanisms of action support
their claims. The herbal remedy is worth trying if orthodox
medicines fail.
Keywords
Anxiety · Depression · Insomnia · Herb · Alkaloids ·
Quercetin · Rutin · Apigenin · Luteolin · Isorhamnetin ·
Kaempferol
S. O. Otimenyin (*)
Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of Jos, Jos, Nigeria
1 Introduction
Psychiatric disorders appear to be common in recent times,
which may be attributed to the changes in life style over the
decades. There seems to have been an increased pressure on
the human race to achieve and possess. Psychiatric disorders
that are commonly seen include anxiety, depression, and
insomnia [1]. Depressive disorders are said to be one of the
most prevalent types of mental illness. Depressive disorders
have a huge inuence on society, especially the plagued individual. These psychiatric disorders have been the major contributors to the incidence of suicide and ischemic heart
disease. It was ranked the second leading cause of disability
worldwide [2]. Depression, anxiety, and insomnia tend to
occur concurrently in subjects. Their symptoms are almost
similar. Major depression presents with many symptoms
including insomnia and anxiety. It isalso observed that drugs
used in managing these disease conditions have related
mechanisms of action.
Anxiety is a common emotional disorder that is intimately
associated with proper fear. Anxiety may serve as a mechanism to adapt to the environment psychologically. It presents
as a common symptom of many medical disorders, especially
psychiatric disorders. Most people who suffer from anxiety
most likely present with sleep disorder [3]. Most patients with
the most common sleep disorder subjectively complain of
their inability to initiate and/or maintain sleep. They may complain of poor quantity and quality of sleep, and hangovers.
Anxiety, depression, and insomnia do occur in the same space
of time. They are common co-morbid psychiatric disorders in
the complexity of mental health disorders [4]. The link
between anxiety, insomnia, and major depressive disorders
impairs immune and cardiovascular systems function [4].
These psychiatric disorders (anxiety, insomnia, and major
depressive disorders) affect the subject’s work, daily life, quality of life, sleep, and well-being. Being a common problem,
the subjects and their relatives sought cures in orthodox and
herbal medicine. The rst point of call in rural settings is the
traditional healer (who uses herbs as their remedies).
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
A. K. Dhara, S. C. Mandal (eds.), Role of Herbal Medicines, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7703-1_13
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S. O. Otimenyin
Mental illnesses are often attributed to negative spiritual
intervention in the human system or activities. There is the
common belief that orthodox remedies cannot proffer solution to the illness; hence, they turn to the spiritualist for help.
These spiritualists use herbal medications in most instances.
Research has documented the benets of these herbs to
mental health, and in some areas, it is being encouraged.
New drug leads for use in orthodox medicine are often
obtained from herbs, hence the need to document these
plants for future research and drugdiscovery. New drug discovery is hoped to resolve the present situation seen across
the population (rapid increase in the number of people with
mental illness is rapidly increasing across the world).
Herbal medicines are commonly used to alleviate or cure
central nervous system disorders, these herbs affect multiple
target sites, and they stimulate more than one receptor in
most cases. Keeping in view that central nervous system disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and insomnia, are habitually found together in a subject and share some similarities in
their neurological basis, medicines for managing these disorders may have similar mechanisms of action. Drugs for managing these diseases might be interconnected with each
other; they may act on the same group of receptors but elicit
different effects in different regions of the brain.
2 Mechanisms ofHerbs Used
intheManagement ofAnxiety,
Depression, andInsomnia
Herbal medicines used for the management of anxiety,
depression, and insomnia act by altering the chemical states
of the brain or by correcting hormonal imbalances.
Most of these herbs act by:
1. IncreasingCNSconcentrations of norepinephrine (NE),
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and dopamine (DA)
2. Enhancing the transmission of GABAergic and/or gluta-
matergic transmitters
3. Suppressing the reuptake of norepinephrine (NE),
5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), and dopamine (DA) in the
brain
4. Inhibiting monoamine oxidases
5. Interferencing with the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal
(HPA) axis
6. Depressing the release corticotropin releasing factor
(CRF).
7. Down regulating the secretion of adrenocorticotropin
(ACTH) from the anterior pituitarygland
8. Attenuating the production and secretion of glucocorti-
coids from the adrenal cortex
9. Suppressing the elevation of corticosterone
concentration
10. Restoring the normal expression and function of GR
11. Decreasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
12. Increasing the phosphorylation level of CREB (cAMP
response element-binding protein) and the expression of
BDNF in the frontal cortex and hippocampus
13. Inhibiting the p-SAPK/p-JNK signaling pathways
induced by stress
14. Decreasing in expression levels of both mRNA and protein of BDNF in the hippocampus
3 Medicinal Plants Used
fortheManagement ofDepression
Central nervous system (CNS) disorders are poorly understood and present with complicated disorders. The CNS
functionality has not been fully decoded; this explains the
mystery that underlines its disorders. This also explains
why such diseases are linked to spiritual problems.
Diseases of the CNS are numerous among which are
depression, anxiety, and insomnia. Depression is a syndrome characterized by some observable behaviors. The
behaviors incapacitate the patients and render them unproductive or harmful to themselves. It is characterized by
profound sadness and the inhibition of psychic/CNS functions. It sometimes present with neuro-vegetative symptoms. Depression has been reported to be the second
leading cause of death (suicide) and disability [5]. It is
foremost among CNS disorders and is a commonly diagnosed disease across the world; about 1in 20 people suffer
from depression yearly. The population of people of all
ages suffering from depression is estimated to be about
280 million; of this number, 700,000 die from suicide
every year [6]. More than 75% of people in low-income
and middle- income countries receive some sort of treatment [7]. Depression often starts at a young age, but it cuts
across all ages. Adolescents with depression present with a
reduction in functional activities. Depression in adolescents often reoccurs. Reduction in productivity is one of
the presentations of depression; to arrest this, research is
ongoing with the aim of arriving at a break-through that is
hoped to improve depression.
Across the globe, there is demand for effective management of depression and the saving of loss of man hours
and reduction of suicides attributed to depression.
Depression is a heterogeneous disorder that is associated
with psychological, behavioral, and physiological symptoms. Observed symptoms of depression include mood
changes, difculty in thinking, and loss of interest in the
environment. The patient may experience physical symptoms, such as sleep disorders, sexual problems, loss of
stamina, and headaches.
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3.1 Symptoms ofDepression
Gateway symptoms
• Depressed mood
• Loss of interest in pleasure (anhedonia)
• Headache
• Weight loss, appetite change, and diminished interest in
pleasurable activities– presenting as social withdrawal
• Insomnia and hypersomnia
• Increased somatic symptoms – fatigue, pain, and
insomnia
• Psychomotor agitation or retardation (feeling of helpless/
hopeless)
• General body weakness and diminished energy
• Feelings of uselessness, worthlessness, or/and guilt
• Difculty taking decisions and paying attention to details
• Thoughts of death or/and suicide
Clinical depression shows physical, behavioral/attitude,
and emotional presentation. The diagnostic effect sort
include:
Physical
1. Sleep disturbances– insomnia, oversleeping, and waking
up early
2. Changes in appetite or eating: much more or much less
3. Decreased energy and fatigue
4. Unexplained digestive problems, headaches, and some-
times stomachaches
Behavioral/Attitude
1. Loss of interest in pleasurable activities that were once
pleasurable, such as sex, hobbies outings, sports, etc
2. Amnesia, difculty making decisions, and concentrating
3. Looking unpresentable and neglecting responsibilities
Emotional
1. Sadist or at mood occurring for up to two or more weeks
2. Sober or crying for no just cause
3. Feeling helpless, worthless, hopeless, or guilty
4. Feeling anxious, agitated, or irritable
5. Suicide or death thoughts
These symptoms of depression occur when there is an
alternation in chemical concentration in the central nervous
system. It affects all aspects of the function of the brain.
There is an altered cognitive, biological, psychomotor, motivational, behavioral, and emotional process. Depression
affects a patient’s quality of daily life and may be the cause
of suicidal death [5, 8]. Subjects are diagnosed to be
depressed if they exhibit the above-listed symptoms consistently for 2weeks in a roll, daily, and appear clinically distressed or display impairment in occupational, social, and/or
other areas of daily activity. Drug-induced depression is due
to the direct effect of the drug on the physiological capabilities of the patient. This state of drug-induced depression in
an individual is different from a normal depressed individual. Normal depressed individuals present with complex
mood disorders with many subtypes, multiple etiologies,
symptomatology ranging from mild to severe with or without psychotic features, and interactions with other psychiatric and somatic disorders. Normal depression is also
accompanied by: a change in appetite, loss of weight, psychomotor retardation or agitation, hypersomnia or insomnia,
loss of energy or fatigue, indecisiveness or diminished ability to concentrate or think, feelings of worthlessness or
excessive/inappropriate guilt, and recurrent thoughts of
death and/or suicidal ideation or attempt [9, 10].
Severe depression is characterized by a depressed mood,
lasting for at least 2years, with other symptoms like fatigue,
feeling hopeless, poor concentration, insomnia or hypersomnia, overeating or poor appetite, and low self-esteem [9]
(Fig.1).
4 Denition ofDepression
Depression is a state of negative alteration of the whole
body, mood, and thoughts. Stress is the main trigger of
depression. Stress produces reactions toward stimulus
(causes of stress), displayed in the form of physical, mental,
and/or emotional responses. It occurs when the brain is
down regulated, evident in a reduction in the levels of most
neurotransmitters in the brain. This results in an alteration
of the subject’s personality, evident in the eating and sleeping habits of the subject, the feeling about self, and perception of things. The functionality of the whole body is
affected (itis a “whole-body” illness). In depression, there
are negative changes in the behavior, feelings, thinking abilities, and physical well-being of the affected patient. The
subject sometimes experiences problems with decisionmaking, short-term memory, negative thoughts and thinking, pessimism, poor self-esteem, excessive guilt and
self-criticism, and self-destructive thoughts. Subjects may
be sad for no reason, not enjoying activities that were found
pleasurable before depression, lack motivation, and become
more apathetic, feeling “slowed down” and fatigued all the
time, irritable, sometimes feeling helpless and hopeless, and
experiencing difculty in controlling temper [10]. Behavior
is altered: Subjects prefer to be alone, avoid external interference, are socially withdrawn, act out their anger with
temper outbursts, are not interested in sexual activities, and
neglect their personal appearance and basic hygiene.
Depressed subjects experience chronic fatigue, more sleeping or problems with sleeping, may stay awake during
sleeping hours, and/or awaken many times at night. Some
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arouse emotion
depression
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S. O. Otimenyin
Fig. 1 Depression cycle
to nociception
Over-production of
stress hormone
More of REM sleep
Thoughts that
patients may sleep for more than the sleeping hours, sleep
most of the day and wake up with fatigue, experience loss of
appetite and diminished memory, weight loss/gain, suicidal
or morbid thoughts, and digestive disorders [2, 5].
Depression cycle
Increased
sensitivity
Depressive
thoughts
Symptoms of
Decreased CNS 5HT
levels
Distorted sleep
Inadequate sleep
and exhaustion
Unpleasant
experiences
Lack of motivation
Reduced
association and
activities. failure
over-activity, pressure of speech, and decreased need for
sleep.
4.4 Stress andDepression
4.1 Types ofDepression
1. Major depression
2. Dysthymic disorder
3. Unspecied depression
4. Adjustment disorder, with depression
5. Bipolar depression
6. Minor depression
7. Psychoticdepression
8. Postpartumdepression
9. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
10. Unipolar depression
4.2 Unipolar Depression
This is a condition characterized by apathy, anhedonia (loss
of interest or capacity for pleasure), changes in sleep and
appetite, sadness, and sometimes suicidal thoughts.
4.3 Bipolar Aective Disorder
This typically consists of both manic and depressive episodes separated by periods of normal mood. Manic episodes
involve increased energy and elevated mood, resulting in
Stress has been shown to be the major cause of depression,
especially if it is not well managed. Stress can be relieved by
engaging in activities that enhance brain activity and relieve
stress. Such activities include:
1. Exercising the body, brain, and mind
1. walking
2. riding bicycles
3. attending aerobic classes
4. practicing yoga
5. swimming
6. playing tennis
4.5 Depression andDiet
The brain needs nutrients to function normally. Such nutrients are found in food and some drinks. In addition, some
agents may be harmful to the brain, interfering with the normal functioning of the brain. If such are found in the diet, it
may spell doom for the brain and the individual. Diet plays a
major role in the management of stress and in maintaining
the brain in good health. It is known that food rich in sugar
stimulates or prolongs the response to stress, while highcholesterol foods adversely affect blood chemistry. Some
medicinal plants and edible vegetables are rich in the
Herbal Medicine fortheManagement ofAnxiety, Depression, andInsomnia
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Table 1 Plants with antidepressant properties
Plant Indication /part used Constituents Mechanism of action
Citrus Limon [14] Depression
Anxiety[14]
Sedation
Essential oil
Aerial parts
Clitoria ternatea Depression Quercetin Mediated via nor-adrenaline,
Clitoria ternatea,
Linn
Coriandrum
sativum
Crocus sativus Depression
Cuscuta planiora Depression Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, luteolin, and
Cyperus rotundus. Depression Iridoids, apigenin, and luteolin
Eschscholzia
californica
Apium graveolens Depression 3, n-butylphthalide and sedanenolide
Avena sativa Depression, anxiety, and nervous
Bacopa monniera Depression
Benincasa hispida Depression
Daucus carota Depression Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and luteolin,
Eschscholtzia
californica
Foeniculum
vulgare
Vetiveria
zizanioides
Gossypium
herbaceum
Helianthus annuus Depression
H.Tuberculatum Depression
Hyoscyamus niger Antidepressant anxiolytic Chlorogenic acid, quercetin, rutin, and
Bacopa monniera Anxiolytic effects, antidepressant
Jasminum sambac Antidepressant Isoquercetin, rutin, apigenin, and
Datura fastuosa Depression Scopolamine, atropine, hyoscyamine,
Cassia occidentalis Antidepressant Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and luteolin
Depression Quercetin Increase noradrenaline and
Depression Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and luteolin Interaction with the adrenergic,
Petal of Crocus sativus
Depression
Anxiety
Insomnia
exhaustion
Anxiety
Anxiety
Depression Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and luteolin
Depression Alpha tocopherol, quercetin, rutin,
Depression
Anxiety
Anxiety
Anxiety
activity, and anticonvulsant
actionantioxidant
Apigenin (biavonoid) Increases motor activity
Inhibits GABAA receptor [15]
Mediated via noradrenergic and
serotoninergic mechanisms
serotonin, and acetylcholine [16]
serotonin levels
dopamine-ergic, and GABA-ergic
system
Crocin 1, picrocrocin, safranal, rutin,
apigenin
kaempferol
Reticuline, aporphine,
N-methyllaurotetanine, californidine,
and corydine
Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, luteolin,
isorhamnetin, and kaempferol
Bacopasides I and II, Bacosides A and
B, and bacopasaponin C
Quercetin Inhibits MAO-A, increases
Protopine and o-diphenol Inhibits monoamine oxidase
apigenin, and luteolin
Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and luteolin Activation of AC-cAMP pathway
Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, and ferulic
acid
Sylimarin, myrecetin, naringenin, rutin,
and quercetin
apigenin
Quercetin, rutin, apigenin, luteolin,
isorhamnetin, and kaempferol
luteolin
and quercetin
Increase the levels of VGF, BDNF,
CREB, and P-CREB
GABAA and serotonin receptors
dopamine, α1-adrenaline,
serotonin, and GABA
(MAO-B)
255
precursors needed by the brain for normal activity; such
plants may be benecial in the management of CNS-related
problems. Plants that have been reported to improve depression (anti- depressants) are listed in Table1.
Stress is inevitable in life. Individuals must devise ways
of managing stress either by relaxing or engaging in positive
relationships. The relaxation response reverses the stress
response in the human mind–body system.
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4.6 Causes ofDepression
Depression is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain. It
may run in families or may be caused by environmental factors or individual factors such as low self-esteemand self
indulgence (e.g.alcoholism).
Depression is a syndrome characterized by some
observable behaviors. It is characterized by profound sadness and the inhibition of psychic functions, sometimes
accompanied by neuro-vegetative symptoms. Several
causative factors that have been identied to cause depression, such as:
1. genetic factors
2. changes in brain neurotransmitter concentration
3. psychosocial problems
4. psychodynamic factors
5. changes blood hormone concentration
6. some physical illnesses
7. drugs/medication
8. inadequate food and minerals
9. diet/food
Depression is caused by an unfavorable change in environmental, biochemical, genetic, and psychological factors.
A number of theories have been proposed as an explanation
for the patho-physiological basis of depression.
4.7 Possible Causative Pathological Factors
ofDepression
1. Impaired sleep (circadian rhythms)
2. Alteration in neurotransmitter levels
3. dysregulated GABA
4. glutamate signaling
5. altered hypothalamus–pituitary axis activity
Adverse life events, such as economic hardship (which
often exacerbates mental health problems, incapacitates
citizens, reduces ofce man hours, and impoverishes people), unexpected outcomes to hard work, unstable environments, and many more have recently been observed to be
the main predisposition to depression. The central nervous
system controls humans and animals through a complex network of neurons. Such central neurons receive signals/information from other parts of the body and the environment.
Biological, psychological, social, and epigenetic factors
have signaled these neurons to alert them of possiblethreat
or sad events.
4.8 Drug Induced Depression
Medications/drugs that produce symptoms that mimic
depression:
• Anabolic steroids
• Opioids
• Digitalis
• Metoclopramide
• Glucocorticoids
• H2 blockers
Some beta-blockersßß
• Anti-arrythmics
• Carbidopa/levodopa
• Anti-convulsants
• Clonidine
• Barbituates
• Benzodiazepenes
4.9 Management ofDepression
Depression has become a great burden in most countries,
leading to loss of man hours and economic loss. Governments
in those countries have in place agencies that formulate policies for the prevention and control of depression and other
related diseases. The factors that predispose to depression
(one of which is economic hardship) are difcult to control
as they affect all nations across the world. Economic and
socio-health factors are global issues that cut across almost
all countries and are difcult to control. This impacts the
control of depression and related mental health issues and
makes it more difcult to prevent depression and access
effective treatments.
The role of the monoaminergic system in depression has
been well studied. Most drugs are expected to elicit their
effects on this system, by increasing monoamine and their
metabolites as well as transporters and precursors in the
brain. This is thought to be the main mechanism of action of
herbal antidepressants. Only a handful of herbal medicines
act on other pathways to control depression. Patients treated
with herbal remedies often regain normal mood and behaviors within a few weeks. The state of their brain may not be
returned to the initial state before depression, but they can
function normally and reintegrate into the work force and
other societal systems.
Herbal medicines have played a major role in the control
and management of depression in many countries [11–13].
The major drawback in its use is the unresearched aspect of
toxicity, as they are presumed to be safe [13]. It is a general
Herbal Medicine fortheManagement ofAnxiety, Depression, andInsomnia
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belief that herbal medicines are safer than orthodox medicines. More so orthodox medicine has not been well accepted
despite the decades of use. Herbs form part of the human diet,
and it is generally believed that it replaces what is lacking in
the body. Taking herbs as medicines is seen as taking food
rather than medicines, which makes it more acceptable.
4.10 Medicinal Plants andDepression
Medicinal plants have met human health needs for decades
(even before the establishment of orthodox medicines),
among such medicinal plants are the antidepressant medicinal plants. Traditional healers have used plants and other
naturally occurring substances to treat/manage depression. It
forms part of their traditional practice, a sizable number of
these plants have and are undergoing clinical trials while
some (or their active principle) have found their way into
orthodox medicine. In traditional medicine practice, multiple
plants are often used for a particular disease condition, with
each plant eliciting the same effect or different effects, but
the effects are thought to be benecial in the management of
the disease conditions concerned. Some of the plants are
used extensively while others are more specic and were
employed only for specic disease conditions.
4.11 Use ofHerb toManage Depression
Most herbal prescriptions do not have specied dosages. The
quantity of herbal products in a cup, and the size of the cup
may vary. The mechanism of action, point of action, and
effects of other untargeted organs are not established in
herbal medicine. It is reasonable to sound a note of warning
regarding the use of herbal medicines. This implies that
herbal preparation must be standardized before it is used in
the human population. Flavonoids are found in plants as natural polyphenols. They have been extensively investigated
for their antidepressant properties, and a number of plants
used for the management of depression have been conrmed
to contain active avonoids (Table 2). Most grains, fruits,
vegetables, tea, and alcohol are the rich source of avonoids.
They are known for their effects on stress (preventing or
reversing stress through a number of mechanisms) (Tables 2
and 3). Some avonoids have been shown to have antidepressant potential and their use has established this fact. In
this chapter, we have attempted to compile potential molecules with benecial anxiolytic, sedative, and/or antidepressant actions. It is hoped that this review will contribute to the
development of safe and effective nutriceuticals that will
reduce in incidence of anxiety, insomnia, and depression in
humans.
Table 2 Plants used for the management of anxiety and insomnia
Plant name/Family Constituents
Achillea moschata
L.Asteraceae
Adiantum capillus-veneris
L.Adiantaceae
Agrimonia eupatoria
L.Rosaceae
Alchemilla group alpina
L.Asteraceae
Alchemilla group vulgaris
L.Asteraceae
Aloysia citrodora Paláu
(L’Hér.) Kuntze) Verbenaceae
Angelica archangelica
L.Apiaceae
Angelica sylvestris
L.Apiaceae
Anthemis arvensis
L.Asteraceae
Artemisia absinthium
L.Asteraceae
Artemisia arborescens
L.Asteraceae
Artemisia vulgaris
L.Asteraceae
Arum italicum miller Araceae Apigenin-6,8-C-pentoside-hexoside Apigenin Antioxidant and anxiety
Apigenin, luteolin, di-succinilcaffeoylquinic
acid, and isorhamnetin-3-O-glucoside
Carvacrol, hexadecanoic acid, thymol,
quercetin −3-O-glucoside, and isoadiantol
Apigenin, naringin, and gallic acid Apigenin and
Linalool, cis-3-hexenol, quercitrin,
isoquercetin, and apigenin-8-C-glucoside
Flavonoids and apigenin Apigenin Anti-inammatory, anti-depressant, and
Limonene, linalool, avonoids (apigenin,
petalite, and luteolin), thymol, and geranial
Flavonoids (quercetin and alkaloids) and
coumarins (osthole and angelicin).
Flavonoids (apigenin-7-glucoside) Apigenin Anti-cancer, antioxidant, anxiety,
Torreyol and apigenin Apigenin Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiety, and
Naringenin and avonoid(quercetin and
catechin)
Chrysoeriol, apigenin, and artemetine Apigenin Antioxidant, antimicrobial, cytotoxic,
Eupatilin, apigenin, jaceosidin, luteolin, and
galangin
Active
biomolecule(s) Pharmacological effects
Apigenin Anxiety, insomnia, and antibacterial
Quercetin Anxiety, anti-inammatory, and
naringin
Apigenin and
quercetin
Flavonoids Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiety,
Quercetin
Quercetin Hypoglycemic, anti-oxidant, and anxiety
Apigenin
hypoglycemic activity
Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiety, and
insomnia
anxiety
insomnia, anti-inammatory, and hypnotic
Antioxidant, anxiety, insomnia, anti-
inammatory, and hypnotic
insomnia, anti-inammatory, and hypnotic
anti-inammatory
anxiety, insomnia, anti-inammatory, and
hypnotic
Antioxidant, anxiety, insomnia, antiinammatory, and hypnotic
(continued)
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Table 2
(continued)
Plant name/Family Constituents
Arum palaeictum L. f.
Araceae
Avena fatua L.Poaceae Beta-carotene nd avonoids Flavonoids Antioxidant and isomnia
Avena sativa L.Poaceae Apigenin, quercetin, naringenin, and luteolin Apigenin and
Ballota nigra L.Solanaceae Flavonoids (apigenin, ladanein, luteolin),
Borago ofcinalis
L.Boraginaceae
Calendula ofcinalis
L.Asteraceae
Centranthus ruber (L.)
DC.Valerianaceae
Chamaemelum nobilis all.
Asteraceae
Citrus aurantium L.Rutaceae Kaempferol, rutin, hesperidin, naringenin,
Citrus Limon L.Rutaceae Pinene, limonene, rutin, hesperidin, luteolin,
Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck
Rutaceae
Clinopodium nepeta (L.)
Kuntze (=Calamintha nepeta
(L.) Savi) Lamiaceae
Conium maculatum
L.Apiaceae Leaves Infusion
[62] Corydalis cava (L.
Corydalis cava (L.) Schweigg.
and Körte Papaveraceae
Crataegus laevigata (Poir.)
DC.Rosaceae
Crataegus monogyna Jacq.
Rosaceae
Crocus sativus L.Iridaceae Crocin, picrocrocin, crocetin, safranal,
Cydonia oblonga mill.
Rosaceae
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers
Poaceae
Dianthus seguieri Vill.
Caryophyllaceae
Ecballium elaterium (L.)
A.Rich Cucurbitaceae
diterpenes, betaines, pinene, linalool, and
cadinol
Flavonoids (quercetin), gallic acid,
kaempferol, and vitamin C
Quercetin, vitexin, apigenin, myricetin, and
kampferol
Valtrate (valepotriates) and avonoids Valtrate Antioxidant, anxiolytic, insomnia,
Flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin, and quercetin) Apigenin And
quercetin, and synephrine
apigenin, diosmetin, and quercetin
Quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, apigenin,
diosmetin, luteolin, and hesperidin
Catechins, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, and
myricetin
Flavonoids and coumarins Flavonoid Antioxidant, anti-inammatory, analgesic,
Quercetin, catechin, kaempferol, apigenin,
diosmetin, luteolin, and hesperidin
Proanthocynidins, setin, quercetin, and
lupeol
Quercetin, lupeol, apigenin, myricetin, and
rutin
zeaxanthin, avonoids, kaempferol, nigricin,
tectoridin, and quercetin
Quinic acid, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol,
epicatechin, and pectin
Quercetin, rutin, kaempferol, catechin,
myricetin, carotene, violaxanthin, and
luteolin
Quercetin, rutin, and kaempferol Anticancer, antiviral, and antibacterial
Rutin, quercetin, luteolin, and apigenin Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer
Active
biomolecule(s) Pharmacological effects
quercetin
Apigenin Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
Quercetin Antioxidant, anxiolytic, sedative-hypnotic
Quercetin Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiety,
quercetin
Quercetin Antioxidant, anxiolytic, insomnia,
Apigenin Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
Quercetinand
apigenin
Quercetin and
apigenin
Crocin Antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inammatory,
Antioxidant, anxiety, anti-inammatory,
and anti-thrombotic effect
insomnia, anti-inammatory, sedativehypnotic antidepressant,
anticholinesterase, and inhibit the
development of cervix cancer
antidepressant, and carcinogenic
insomnia,, hypnotic
sedative-hypnotic antidepressant
Antioxidant, and antitumor, anxiolytic,
insomnia, and sedative-hypnotic
antidepressant
anti-inammatory, analgesic, and
sedative-hypnotic antidepressant
insomnia, anti-inammatory, sedativehypnotic antidepressant, anticancer, and
anticonvulsant
Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
antidepressant, and anticancer
Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
insomnia, sedative-hypnotic
antidepressant, and anti cancer
and anti cancer
Antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
sedative-hypnotic
Lowers blood pressure, antioxidant,
anxiolytic, sedative-hypnotic, and
anticancer
Lowers blood pressure, antioxidant,
anxiolytic, and sedative-hypnotic,
hypotensive, anticonvulsant,
antiAlzheimer, antidepressant, anxiolytic,
sedative-hypnotic, anti-inammatory, and
cytotoxic
Antioxidant, anxiolytic, insomnia,
anti-inammatory, sedative-hypnotic
antidepressant, and diuretic
Antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic,
anti-inammatory, sedative-hypnotic
antidepressant, anticancer, and antipyretic
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