Micro- and Nanoelectronics. Учебное пособие

Text B. Micromachines

Micromachines are mechanical objects that are fabricated in the same general manner as integrated circuits. They are generally considered to be between 100 nanometres to 100 micrometres in size, though that is debatable. The applications of micromachines include accelerometers that detect when a car has hit an object and trigger an airbag. Complex systems of gears and levers are another application.

Most micromachines act as transducers; in other words, they are either sensors or actuators.

Sensors convert information from the environment into interpretable electrical signals. One example of a micromachine sensor is a resonant chemical sensor. A lightly damped mechanical object vibrates much more at one frequency than any other, and this frequency is called its resonance frequency. A chemical sensor is coated with a special polymer that attracts certain molecules and when those molecules attach to the sensor, its mass increases. The increased mass alters the resonance frequency of the mechanical object, which is detected with circuitry.

Actuators convert electrical signals and energy into motion of some kind. The three most common types of actuators are electrostatic, thermal, and magnetic. Electrostatic actuators use the force of electrostatic energy to move objects. Two mechanical elements, one that is stationary (the stator) and one that is movable (the rotor) have two different voltages applied to them, which creates an electric field. The field competes with a restoring force on the rotor (usually a spring force produced by the bending or stretching of the rotor) to move the rotor. The greater the electric field, the farther the rotor will move. Thermal actuators use the force of thermal expansion to move objects. When a material is heated, it expands and amount depending on material properties. Two objects can be connected in such a way that one object is heated more than the other and expands more, and this imbalance creates motion. The direction of motion depends on the connection between the objects.

Text C. Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology, shortened to “nanotech”, is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanostruc-

51

tures are assembled a single atom, molecule, or atomic layer at a time, as part of a vast new field of research in nanomaterials synthesis and assembly.

Generally, structures smaller than a nanometer tend to behave much like individual atoms, while materials that are hundreds of nanometers or greater in size exhibit properties of the continuum. Nanoscale properties and behaviors can be quite different as the result of unique physical and chemical interactions. The preponderance of surfaces and interfaces, and the physical confinement of matter and energy, can alter nearly all properties of materials (physical, chemical, optical, etc.), and thus produce extraordinary new behaviors. Examples include generating light from dark materials, improving efficiencies of catalysts by orders of magnitude, and turning soft and ductile materials like gold into solids with hardness equivalent to bearing steel.

The final ingredient to nanotechnology is the ability to characterize and predict nanoscale properties and behavior. New experimental tools that are able to “see”, “touch”, and measure the behavior of individual nanostrucures allow scientists and engineers to identify subtle differences in structure and properties that control nanoscale properties. By coupling new experimental techniques with advanced computational tools, researchers can develop, verify, and refine models and simulations that will allow the full potential for nanotechnology to be explored.

There has been much debate on the future implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted.

52

1. State the form of the Participle:

1.A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor – such as copper, gold etc. – and an insulator, such as glass.

2.Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in thermoelectric generators.

3.Having carried out the experiment he got satisfying results.

4.Some materials, such as titanium dioxide, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications, while being treated as wide-gap semiconductors for other applications.

5.An unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the material.

6.When undoped, these have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators.

7.Having been written long ago, the thesis was not of importance.

8.Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as passing current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance.

2.Circle the correct attribute given in each pair:

1.Many types of transistors are made to standardizing/standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers.

2.Using/used this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947.

3.A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing/flown between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals.

4.In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux, a Westinghouse subsidiary locating/located in Paris.

5.The ratio of these currents varies depending/ depended on the type of transistor.

6.The first "production" pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1, releasing /released in October 1954.

7.It was not possible to actually construct a working/worked device at that time.

8.The vast majority of transistors are now produced in integrating/integrated circuits.

54

9.When saturating/saturated, the switch is said to be on.

10.BJTs have three terminals, corresponding/ corresponded to the three layers of semiconductor-an emitter, a base, and a collector.

11.The field-effect transistor, sometimes calling/called a unipolar transistor, uses either electrons or holes for conduction.

3.Replace the clauses with participial constructions.

1.The apparatus that stands on the table in the corner of the laboratory is quite new.

2.The young man who helps the professor in his experiments studies at an evening school for laboratory workers.

3.When you begin to work with this explosive material, don’t forget my instructions.

4.When he started using different chemicals he could get satisfying results in his experiment.

5.When you finish to work with this equipment don`t forget to switch it

off.

6.When he spoke to the professor some days ago, he asked him some important questions.

7.Methods that improved the research work should be published in an article.

8.The equipment, which was installed in the laboratory, appeared to be inefficient.

4.Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to Participle I and II:

1.The materials are generally used in thin film structures, which do not require material of higher electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.

2.In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of producing heat.

3.Plasma etching usually involves an etch gas pumped in a lowpressure chamber to create plasma.

4.Electrical conductivity arises due to the presence of electrons in states that are delocalized (extending through the material).

5.When undoped, semi-insulators have electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators, however they can be doped.

6.In order to transport electrons a state must be partially filled, containing an electron only part of the time.

55

7.Some materials, such as titanium dioxide, can even be used as insulating materials for some applications.

8.Such carrier traps are sometimes purposely added to reduce the time needed to reach the steady state.

5.Translate the sentences into English, paying attention to Participles.

1.Как правило, электронные устройства содержат схемы, состоящие в основном из активных полупроводников, дополненных пассивными элементами.

2.Вакуумные трубки играли ведущую роль в области микроволновой и высокомощной передачи

3.«Цепь» может быть определена как что-либо от одного компонента до систем, содержащих тысячи компонентов.

4.Перегруженный транзисторный усилитель может принимать характеристики управляемого переключателя, имеющего по существу два уровня выходного сигнала.

5.Сегодняшние инженеры в области электроники имеют возможность проектировать схемы с использованием предварительно изготовленных строительных блоков, таких как источники питания и полупроводники.

6.Технологии межсоединений дополняют функциональность схемы

ипревращают смешанные компоненты в обычную рабочую систему.

7.Электронным компонентом является любой физический объект в электронной системе, используемой для воздействия на электроны электронной системы.

8.Компоненты, как правило, предназначены для соединения друг с другом, обычно путем припаивания к печатной плате.

The Gerund

Герундий – это неличная форма глагола, совпадающая с формами причастия I (Simple и Perfect) и обладающая свойствами как глагола, так и существительного.

The Forms of the Gerund

Syntactic Functions of the Gerund

56

1.Define the syntactic function of the Gerund and translate these sentences into Russian.

1. A generator is a machine for converting mechanical energy into electrical energy by making use of the interaction between a conductor and a magnetic field.

2.It is possible to add a considerable amount of heat without producing any temperature change in the given substance.

3.In connecting the ends of the metals with a metal wire, one causes the

current to flow through that wire.

4.In electric motors, transmission lines and generators heat is useless and overheating is most undesirable.

5.Programming a computer involves analyzing the problem to be

solved and a plan to solve it.

6. Superheating is a process of heating a liquid above its boiling point without converting it into vapor.

2.Use the appropriate form of the Gerund (indefinite or perfect, passive or active).

Example:

I am against (to increase) the temperature. I am against increasing the temperature.

57

I am against the temperature (to increase). I am against the temperature being increased.

1.We are for the question (to discuss) at the meeting.

_________________________________

2.We are for (to discuss) the question at the meeting.

_________________________________

3.The question is worth (to discuss) at the meeting.

__________________________________

4.I insist on (to repeat) the experiment more accurately.

________________________________

5.They suggested the equipment (to use) in their experiment.

__________________________

6.The equipment of our laboratory needs (to improve).

_______________________________

7.Has she solved the problem? – Yes, she has. But I am surprised at her (to solve) it. _______

8.After (to heat) to a sufficient temperature the substance began to emit

light.

3. Decide if an italicized word is Participle I or the Gerund.

1.Changing the resistance of the circuit, one may control current flow.

2.Changing the resistance of a circuit is one of the methods of controlling the flow of current in the circuit.

3.The electric current passing through a wire heats that wire.

4.The electric current passing through a wire, the heat developed will depend upon the amount of current.

5.By adding heat to a boiling liquid we make it change its state without changing its temperature.

6.Adding heat to a boiling liquid we make it change its state without changing its temperature.

4. Translate into Russian.

1.By comparing the two expressions for the same physical quantity it is possible to obtain some information about the relation between the units in the two systems.

2.Light undergoes a change in velocity in passing from one medium to another.

3.It’s no use discussing this problem without specifying all the details of the procedure.

58

4.On being heated to a high temperature many metallic compounds are decomposed.

5.She needs to work without being disturbed.

5. Translate into English using the Gerund.

1.Проведение данного эксперимента требует много знаний.

2.Иметь дело стакими точными измерениями чрезвычайно трудно.

3.Бесполезно использовать это оборудование, чтобы получить более точные данные.

4.Я против того, чтобы повышать температуру. Нагревание может изменить свойства данного вещества.

5.Мы за то, чтобы проверить полученные результаты.

6.Об этих фактах стоит упомянуть.

7.Этот вопрос не стоит обсуждать на научной конференции.

The Infinitive

Инфинитив является основной глагольной формой, от которой образуются все личные формы глагола во всех группах времен в действительном и страдательном залогах.

The Forms of the Infinitive

Infinitive Indefinite употребляется для выражения действия, одновременного с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым в личной форме.

59

Infinitive Continuous выражает действие в процессе его развития одновременно с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым в личной форме.

Infinitive Perfect выражает действие, которое предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым.

Форма инфинитива страдательного залога указывает на то, что действие, выраженное инфинитивом, направлено на лицо или предмет, связанный с инфинитивом.

Any rust which is present in the cylinder of the engine must be removed.

Ржавчина внутри цилиндра мотора должна быть удалена.

1.Translate from English into Russian, paying attention to the Infinitive.

1.To solve this complicated problem is an actual task in our investiga-

tion.

2.He expected to discover more accurate figures in the course of the experiment.

3.He was one of the first scientists to appreciate the importance of complex numbers.

4.It is a peculiar thing to do.

5.He was able to create an ingenious method.

6.To complete the survey, you have to collect more data.

7.You might prefer to experiment with these substances.

8.This approach gives you great power to reveal hidden relations between these methods.

9.Nowadays scientists tend to take these benefits for granted.

10.It is hard to believe that they achieved such great progress.

2.Translate from Russian into English, using different forms of the Infinitive.

1.Это позволяет нам производить оборудование нового поколения.

2.Он, должно быть, обдумывает результаты своей работы.

3.Мы довольны тем, что получили подобные данные.

4.Было бы отлично выполнить проект до наступления крайнего срока.

5.Нам надо закончит множество экспериментов.

6.Установку следует демонтировать.

7.Ему надо попросит техника починить станок.

8.Руководитель заставил его повторить эксперимент.

60