English Lexicology in Theory and Practice. Учебное пособие

Table 7. Some productive affixes

Non-productive affixes are the affixes which are not able to form new words in this particular period of language development (see Table 10).

Table 10. Some non-productive affixes

The productivity of an affix should not be confused with its frequency of occurrence that is understood as the existence in the vocabulary of a great number of words containing the affix in question. An affix may occur in hundreds of words, but if it is not used to form new words, it is not productive, for instance, the adjective suffix –ful.

4. VALENCY OF AFFIXES AND BASES

Valency of affixes is understood as their capability to be combined with certain bases, for example, adjective forming suffixes are mostly attached to nominal bases. They are: -en (golden), -ful (meaningful), -less (careless), -ly (soldierly), -like (childlike). The highly productive suffix –able, however, can be combined with nominal and verbal bases alike (honorable, advisable).

Valency of bases is the possibility of a particular base to take a particular affix. The valency of bases is not unlimited. For example, noun bases can be followed by:

1) the noun-forming suffixes: –eer (profiteer), -ful (spoonful), -ics (linguistics), -let (cloudlet);

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The new word acquires a meaning, which differs from that of the original one though it can be easily associated with it. The converted word acquires also a new paradigm and a new syntactic function (or functions), which are peculiar to its new category as a part of speech, for example, plant – to plant (see Table 9).

Among the main varieties of conversion are:

1.verbalization (the formation of verbs): to ape (from ape (n));

2.substantivation (the formation of nouns): a private (from private adj.);

3.adjectivation (the formation of adjectives): down (adj) (from down (adv));

4.adverbalization (the formation of adverbs): home (adv) (from home (n)).

2. TYPICAL SEMANTIC RELATIONS IN CONVERSION

The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs.

1. Verbs converted from nouns are called denominal verbs. If the noun refers to some object of reality (both animate and inanimate) the converted verb may denote:

a)action characteristic of the object: ape (n) – ape (v) – „imitate in a foolish way‟; butcher (n) − butcher (v) −‘kill animals for food, cut up a killed animal‟;

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Daigram 16. Deverbal substantives

In case of polysemantic words one and the same member of a conversion pair may belong to several groups. For instance, the verb dust belongs to Group d) of Denominal verbs (deprivation of the object) when it means

„remove dust from something‟, and to Group c) (acquisition or addition of the object) when it means „cover with powder‟.

3. WORD-COMPOSITION

Word-composition (or compounding) is the type of word-formation, in which new words are produced by combining two or more Immediate Constituents (ICs), which are both derivational bases. Word-composition is one of the productive types of word-formation in Modern English. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units. They are formally and semantically dependent on the constituent bases and the semantic relations between them, which mirror the relations between the motivating units.

The ICs compound words represent bases of three structural types:

1)bases that coincide with morphological stems: to day-dream, daydreamer;

2)bases that coincide with word-forms: wind-driven, paper-bound.

3)bases that coincide with word-groups: blue-eyed, long-fingered.

The bases built on stems may be of different degrees of complexity:

1)simple, for example, week-end, pen-friend;

2)derived, for example, letter-writer, office-management;

3)compound, for example, fancy-dress-maker, aircraft-carrier, etc.

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However, this complexity of structure of bases is not typical of the bulk of Modern English compounds.

In this connection care should be taken not to confuse compound words with polymorphic words of secondary derivation, i.e. derivatives built according to an affixal pattern but on a compound stem for its base such as, for instance, school-mastership ([n+n]+suf), ex-housewife (prf+[n+n]), to weekend, to spotlight ([n+n]+conversion).

4. TYPES OF MEANING OF COMPOUND WORDS

The meaning of a compound word is made up of two components: structural and lexical.

4.1. THE STRUCTURAL MEANING

The structural meaning of compounds is formed on the base of:

1)the meaning of their distributional pattern;

2)the meaning of their derivational pattern.

The distributional pattern of a compound is understood as the order and arrangement of the ICs that constitute a compound word. A change in the order and arrangement of the same ICs signals the compound words of different lexical meanings, cf.: pot-flower – „a flower that grows in a pot‟ and flower-pot – „s small container used for growing flowers in‟. A change in the order arrangement of the ICs that form a compound may destroy its meaning. Thus, the distributional pattern of a compound carries a certain meaning of its own which is largely independent of the actual lexical meaning of their ICs.

The meaning of the derivational pattern of compounds can be abstracted and described through the interrelation of their ICs. For example, the derivational pattern n+ven underlying the compound adjectives dutybound, wind-driven, mud-stained conveys the generalized meaning of instrumental or agentive relations which can be interpreted as „done by‟ or „with the help of something‟.

Derivational patterns in compounds may be monosemantic and polysemantic. For instance, the pattern n+n→N conveys the following semantic relations: 1) of purpose: bookshelf; 2) of resemblance: needle-fish; 3) of instrument or agent: windmill, sunset.

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4.2. THE LEXICAL MEANING

The lexical meaning of compounds is formed on the base of the combined lexical meanings of their constituents. The semantic center of the compound is the lexical meaning of the second component modified and restricted by the meaning of the first. The lexical meanings of both components are closely fused together to create a new semantic unit with a new meaning, which dominates the individual meanings of the bases, and is characterized by some additional component not found in any of the bases. For example, the lexical meaning of the compound word handbag is not essentially „a bag designed to be carried in the hand‟ but „a woman‟s small bag to carry everyday personal items‟.

5. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUND WORDS

Compound words can be classified according to different principles.

1.According to the relations between the ICs compound words fall into two classes: coordinative compounds and subordinative compounds.

In coordinative compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important. The coordinative compounds are divided into three groups:

a) reduplicative compounds which are made up by the repetition of the same base: pooh-pooh, fifty-fifty;

b) compounds formed by joining the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms: chit-chat, zig-zag (with the same initial consonants but different vowels), walkie-talkie, clap-trap (with different initial consonants but the same vowels);

c) additive compounds which are built on stems of the independently functioning words of the same part of speech: actor-manager, queenbee.

In subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the head-member which is, as a rule, the second IC, for example, stone-deaf, age-long. The second IC preconditions the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound.

2.According to the part of speech compounds represent they fall into:

1)compound nouns: sunbeam, maidservant;

2)compound adjectives: heart-free, far-reaching;

3)compound pronouns: somebody, nothing;

4)compound adverbs: nowhere, inside;

5)compound verbs: to offset, to bypass, to mass-produce.

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From the diachronic point of view many compound verbs of the present day language are treated not as compound verbs proper but as polymorphic verbs of secondary derivation. They are termed pseudo-compounds and are represented by two groups:

a)verbs formed by means of conversion from the stems of compound nouns: to spotlight (from spotlight);

b)verbs formed by back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns: to babysit (from baby-sitter).

However synchronically compound verbs correspond to the definition of a compound as a word consisting of two free stems and functioning in the sentence as a separate lexical unit. Thus, it seems logical to consider such words as compounds by right of their structure.

3.According to the means of composition compound words are classified into:

1)compounds composed without connecting elements: toothache, dog-house;

2)compounds composed with the help of a vowel or a consonant as linking elements: handicraft, speedometer, statesman;

3)compounds composed with the help of linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stems: daughter-in-law, bread-and- butter.

4.According to the type of bases that form compounds the following classes can be singled out:

1)compounds proper that are formed by joining together bases built on the stems or on the word-forms with or without a linking element: door-step, street-fighting;

2)derivational compounds that are formed by joining affixes to the

bases built on the word-groups or by converting the bases built on the word-groups into other parts of speech: long-legged → (long legs) + -ed; a turkey → (to turn key) + conversion. Thus, derivational compounds fall into two groups:

a)derivational compounds mainly formed with the help of suffixes – ed and –er applied to bases built, as a rule, on attributive phrases: narrow-minded, doll-faced, lefthander;

b)derivational compounds formed by conversion applied to bases built, as a rule, on three types of phrases – verbal-adverbial phrases (a breakdown), verbal-nominal phrases (a kill-joy) and attributive phrases (a sweet-tooth).

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6. SOURCES OF COMPOUNDS

The actual process of building compound words may take different forms.

1)Compound words as a rule are built spontaneously according to productive distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, and numerous compound verbs like outgrow, offset, inlay (adv +

v)were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today practically no verbs are built in this way.

2)Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget- me-not – „a small plant with blue flowers‟, bull’s-eye – „the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy‟, mainland – „a continent‟ all go back to free phrases which became semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up these phrases have lost, within these particular formations, their integrity, the whole phrase has become isolated in form, specialised in meaning and thus turned into an inseparable unit – a word having acquired semantic and morphological unity.

Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n) structure, for instance, bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor, are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free word-groups. One more example, highway, which was once actually a high way for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highway without any idea of the original sense of the first element.

QUESTIONS

1.What is conversion?

2.What does a new word acquire under conversion?

3.What are the main varieties of conversion?

4.What parts of speech are especially affected by conversion?

5.What verbs are called denominal?

6.What may the converted verb denote if the noun from which it is formed refers to some object of reality?

7.What nouns are called deverbal substantives?

8.What may the converted noun denote if the verb from which it is formed refers to an action?

9.What is word-composition?

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