English Lexicology in Theory and Practice. Учебное пособие

3. BORROWED WORDS

The English language happened to come in close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). Due to the great influence of the Roman civilisation Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion. Old Norse was the language of the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the 11th century. French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system − developed feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents

and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century.

In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as a rule placed on the Middle English period. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social, political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of borrowings (41%) is scientific and technical terms.

The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such were for instance the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.

Under the influence of the Scandinavian languages, which were closely related to Old English, some classes of words were borrowed that could not have been adopted from non-related or distantly related languages (the pronouns they, their, them, for instance); a number of Scandinavian borrowings were felt as derived from native words (they were of the same root and the connection between them was easily seen), for example, drop (AS.) – drip (Scand.), true (AS.)-tryst (Scand.). Here are some examples of early Scandinavian borrowings: call (v), take (v), cast (v), die (v), law (n), husband (n), window (n), ill (adj), loose (adj), low (adj), weak (adj).

Some of the words of this group are easily recognisable as Scandinavian borrowings by the initial sk- combination: sky, skill, skin, ski, skirt, etc.

The Scandinavian influence even accelerated to a certain degree the development of the grammatical structure of English. The etymological structure of the English word-stock you can see in Table 11.

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Table 11. The etymological structure of the English vocabulary

By the native element are meant the words which were not borrowed from other languages but represent the original stock of this particular language.

3.1. WAYS OF BORROWINGS

Borrowings enter the language in two ways:

1)through oral speech (by immediate contact between the peoples). They took place in the early periods of history. They are usually short, for instance, L. inch, mill, street and undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption.

2)through written speech (by indirect contact through books, etc.). They gained importance in recent times. These words (for example, Fr. communiqué, belles-lettres, naïveté) preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form, their assimilation is long and laborious process.

3.2. TYPES OF BORROWED WORDS

Borrowings can be singled out according to their type:

1) Translation borrowings (калька) are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the English language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal morpheme-for- morpheme translation, for example, mother tongue < L. lingua maternal; it

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goes without saying < Fr. Cela va sans dire; wall newspaper < Russ.

Стенгазета).

2) Semantic borrowing is understood as the development in an English word of a new meaning under the influence of a related word in another language, for instance, the English word pioneer means „explorer‟ and „one who is among the first in new fields of activity‟. Under influence of the Russian word „пионер‟ it has come to mean „a member of the Young Pioneers‟ Organization‟.

4. INTERNATIONAL WORDS

International words – words which are borrowed by several languages. They convey concepts, which are significant in the field of communication. Many of them are Latin and Greek origin.

1.Names of sciences: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology.

2.Terms of art: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.

3.Political terms: politics, policy, democracy, revolution, communism, progress.

4.The English language contributed a number of international words to world languages: football, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, etc.

5.Fruits and foodstuff imported from exotic countries: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, grapefruit.

International words are often confused with other words which have the same origin but have diverged in meaning in different languages, for instance, extravagance 1. нелепость, сумасбродство, вздор; блажь; причуды; 2) расточительность; мотовство; accurate – верный, правильный, точный.

5. ETYMOLOGICAL DOUBLETS AND TRIPLETS

Etymological doublets are the words originated from the same etymological source, but different in phonemic shape and in meaning. The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root. Shirt is a native word, and skirt is a Scandinavian borrowing. Their phonemic shape is different, but there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin. There meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing.

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Others are represented by two borrowings from different languages which are historically descended from the same root: senior (L) – sir (Fr); canal (L) – channel (Fr); captain (L) – chieftain (Fr).

Etymological triplets – group of words of common root: hospital (L) – hostel (Norm.Fr) – hotel (Par.Fr); to capture (L) – to catch (Norm. Fr) – to chase (Par. Fr).

6. ASSIMILATION OF BORROWINGS

Assimilation of borrowings denotes a partial or total confrontation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the English language and its semantic system. There are three degrees of assimilation.

1)Completely assimilated borrowed words follow all morphological, phonetical and orthographic standards. They take part in word-formation. Their morphological structure and motivation is transparent. They are found in all layers of older borrowings: cheese (L.), husband (Sc.), animal (L.).

2)Partially assimilated borrowed words are subdivided into:

a)borrowings not completely assimilated graphically; these are words from French, in which the final consonant is not read: ballet, buffet;

with a diacritic mark: café, cliché; diagraphs ch, qu, ou, etc.: bouquet, banquet.

b)borrowings not completely assimilated phonetically, for instance,

from French with the stress on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police or bourgeois, prestige, regime.

c)borrowings not completely assimilated grammatically, for example, nouns from Latin and Greek keep their original plural forms: phenomenon – phenomena; criterion – criteria.

d)borrowings not completely assimilated semantically because they denote objects and notions peculiar to the country from which they come, for instance, sari, sombrero, rickshaw, sherbet, etc.

3)Unassimilated borrowings (barbarisms) are words from other languages used by English people, for example, ciao – „good-bye‟ or tête-à- tête.

Substitution of sounds, formation of new grammatical categories and paradigms, morphological simplification and narrowing of meaning take place in the very act of borrowing. Some words however retain foreign sounds and inflexions for a long time. Shift of stress is a long and gradual process; the same is true of the development of new meanings in a borrowed word, while the formation of derivatives may occur soon after the adoption of the word.

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The degree of assimilation depends on the time of borrowing, the extent to which the word is used in the language and the way of borrowing.

QUESTIONS

1.What is Etymology?

2.What word is called native?

3.What does the term a borrowing mean?

4.What is the diachronic division of native words?

5.What semantic groups of native words belong to the Indo-European origin?

6.What semantic groups of native words belong to the words of the Common Germanic origin?

7.What are the main features of the English words proper?

8.What languages did the English language borrow words from? What is the etymological structure of English vocabulary?

9.What is historical development of borrowed words in the English language?

10.What are the ways of borrowings?

11.What types of borrowed words do you know?

12.What is meant by translation borrowings?

13.What does the term semantic borrowing denote?

14.What borrowings are called international words?

15.What does the term etymological doublets imply?

16.What is meant by etymological triplets?

17.What native elements does the English vocabulary include?

18.What borrowed elements does the English vocabulary involve?

19.What does the assimilation of borrowings denote?

20.What are the main degrees of assimilation?

21.What borrowings are regarded as completely assimilated? 22.How can partially assimilated borrowed words be singled out? 23.What are borrowings „not completely assimilated phonetically‟?

24.How can you characterize the borrowings which are not completely assimilated graphically?

25.What are borrowings not completely assimilated grammatically like? 26. How can you describe borrowings which are not completely assimi-

lated semantically?

27.How can we call an unassimilated borrowing? What is their main feature?

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In modern linguistics the distinction is made between Standard English and territorial variants of the English language.

Standard English may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood. It has a prescribed norm, or standard use, that receives the highest respect within society. This respect is based on grammatical usage and on pronunciation. Standard English is the variety most widely accepted and understood either within an English-speaking country or throughout the entire English-speaking world.

Variants of English are regional variants possessing a literary norm. There are distinguished variants existing on the territory of the United Kingdom (British English, Scottish English and Irish English), and variants existing outside the British Isles (American English, Canadian English, New Zealand English, South African English and Indian English).

British English is often referred to the written Standard English and the pronunciation known as Received Pronunciation (RP).

2. VARIANTS OF ENGLISH IN THE UNITED KINGDOM

Besides British English, there are two other variants of the English language existing on the territory of the United Kingdom: Scottish English and Irish English, which have a special linguistic status.

2.1. SCOTTISH ENGLISH

Scottish English is considered the variant of the English language spoken in Scotland. Scottish English has a long tradition as a separate written and spoken variety. Pronunciation, grammar and lexis differ from other varieties of English existing on the territory of the British Isles. It can be explained by its historical development.

The identity of Scottish English reflects an institutionalized social structure, as it is most noticeable in the realm of law, local government, religion, and education, and raises problems of intelligibility that have no parallel elsewhere in Britain.

Among lexical peculiarities of Scottish English the following linguistic facts are of importance:

1)some semantic fields are structured differently in Scottish English and in British English. For example, the term minor in British English is used to denote a person below the age of 18 years, while Scottish law distinguishes between pupils (to age 12 for girls and 14 for boys) and minors (older children up to 18);

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Besides distinctive features in lexis Irish English has grammatical, phonetical and spelling peculiarities of its own, for example, the use of „does be / do be‟ construction in the following phrase: They do be talking on their mobiles a lot.

3. VARIANTS OF ENGLISH OUTSIDE THE BRITISH ISLES

There are distinguished six variants of the English language outside the British Isles. Each of these has developed a literature of its own, and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.

3.1. AMERICAN ENGLISH

American English is the variety of the English language spoken in the USA. The vocabulary used by American speakers, has distinctive features and are called Americanisms:

1)historical Americanisms: fall – „autumn‟; to guess – „to think‟; sick –

„ill, unwell‟. In American usage these words still retain their old meanings whereas in British English their meanings have changed or fell out of use.

2)proper Americanisms are not discovered in British vocabulary: redbud – „an American tree having small budlike pink flowers‟; bluegrass – „a sort of grass peculiar to North America‟.

3)specifically American borrowings reflect the historical contacts of the Americans with other nations on the American continent: ranch, sombrero (Spanish borrowings), toboggan, caribou (американский олень) (Indian borrowings).

4)American shortenings are shortenings, which were produced on American soil, but may be used in other variants of English as well, for example, dorm – dormitory; mo – moment; cert – certainly.

3.2. CANADIAN ENGLISH

Canadian English is the variety of the English language used in Canada and close to American English. Canadian English has its own words not found in other variants of English. Specifically Canadian words are called Canadianisms, for example, parkade – „parking garage‟; chesterfield – „a sofa, couch‟; to fathom out – „to explain‟.

There may be also meaning differences in words and expressions used in Canadian English and in other variants of the English language. For instance, to table a document in Canada is „to present it‟, whereas in the USA it means „to withdraw it from consideration‟.

„A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical principles‟ identifies some

10000 words and expressions with Canadian origins.

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3.3. AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH

Australian English is the variety of the English language used in Australia. It is similar to British English, but it also borrows from American English, for example, truck is used instead of lorry. It is most similar to New Zealand English.

Due to the predominance of foreign mass media products in the country, Australians are familiar with at least some of the variants of modern English.

Australian English also incorporates several uniquely Australian terms, for example, outback to refer to remote regional areas, walkabout to refer to a long journey of uncertain length and bush to refer to native forested areas.

The Aboriginal vocabulary, which is one of the trademarks of Australian English, included billabong – a waterhole, jumbuck – a sheep, corroborre – an assembly, boomerang – a curved throwing stick, etc.

Australian English has a unique set of diminutives formed by adding –o or –ie to the ends of words often abbreviated: arvo (afternoon), servo (service station), barbie (barbecue), bikkie (biscuit).

A very common feature of traditional Australian English is rhyming slang, based on Cockney rhyming slang and imported by migrants from London in the 19th century.

3.4. NEW ZEALAND ENGLISH

New Zealand English is the variety of the English language spoken in New Zealand and close to Australian English in pronunciation.

Many local words in New Zealand English were borrowed from the Maori population to describe the local flora, fauna, and the natural environment, for instance, the names of birds (kiwi, tui); the names of fish (shellfish, hoki); the names of native trees (kauri, rimu) and many others.

There are many words unique to New Zealand English, or shared with Australian English, for example, bach – „a small holiday home, often with only one or two rooms and of simple construction‟; footpath – „pavement‟; togs – „swimming costume‟. New Zealand English has made most progress or divergence in idiom and different metaphoric phrases. They often reflect significant differences in culture. For example, the expression up the Puhoi

(river) without a paddle means „to be in difficulties without an obvious solution‟.

The phrase sticky beak is used to describe someone unduly curious about people‟s affairs. It has the same meaning in both New Zealand and

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