Музыкальные жанры. Учебно-методические материалы по обучению чтению специальной литературы

as the famous Toccata and Fugue in D minor BWV 565, accentuate the epic appeal of this form by alternating recitative fugatos and non-arpeggiato chords. After Bach, the toccata fell rapidly into disuse. It reappeared occasionally in the 19th and 20th centuries, treated as pieces of great virtuosity for the piano by Muzio Clementi, Karl Czerny, Schumann (Toccata opus 7), pastiched (Max Reger, Prokofiev), arranged rhythmically like motu perpetuo (Debussy's Pour le piano, Ravel's piano version of Le Tombeau de Couperin), or adapted to the classical style which inspired in certain composers the more or less explicit attempts at a 'return' to Bach: Eugene Gigout's organ toccatas, Charles-Marie Widor (toccata from the Fifth Symphony), Louis Vierne.

Answer the questions:

1.Has a toccata a precise structure in the generally accepted sense?

2.Was a toccata an instrumental piece for keyboard or wind instruments?

3.What was the intension of a toccata?

4.When was a toccata played by trumpets?

5.What form did a toccata take under the influence of Girolamo Frescobaldi in the 17th century?

6.After whom did the toccata fall rapidly in disuse?

7.How were toccatas treated in the 19th, 20th centuries?

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Ir- rational, regular, respective, relevant, replaceable, responsible, resolute

Il- logical, legal, literate, legitimate

IV. State the function of Participle I and translate the word combinations:

1. obeying strict principals of imitation; 2. entering in turn, 3. becoming widespread throughout the 17th century in Spain, 4. consisting of the successive introduction of the subject and its answers, 5. oscillating between very distant keys

Read and translate the text

From the Latin fuga (flight), the fugue is the most rigorous of all musical forms connected with polyphony. The behaviour of the different voices makes use of all the resources of contrapuntal skill. Firstly, a fugue results “exclusively from the combination of melodic lines, all of equal importance, without any note being able to form part of a chord without having first been justified melodically” (Jacques Chailley). Obeying strict principles of imitation, each of the voices which have successive entries — is thus derived from a base theme which dominates, called the subject (in Latin dux: leader).

Fugues always begin with the subject played by the first voice then, entering in turn, the second voice gives the answer (in Latin comes: accompanist). The first voice — that which proposed the subject — is modified by this answer; we now hear in it a counter-subject whose function is to accompany the answer. In short, a fugue combines with its subject its own transformations which are created by taking bits from all of the resources of contrapuntal imitation. More technically, while the answer (or consequent) does not exactly reproduce the subject (or antecedent), it creates what we call irregular imitation; and these

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irregularities can be produced by the augmentation, or reduction of the rhythmic values of all the notes of the subject (which can thus be played twice as slowly or twice as quickly); by inverse movement, or inversion (the consequent is derived from the antecedent as if a mirror had been placed under it); by backward movement (here the consequent is the antecedent read backwards); or finally by a combination of these various processes. The number of voices — whose entries are successive

— must remain constant throughout a given fugue. As a result of these principles no other musical form contains such a clear equivalence of voices or such a controlled stylistic unity.

Even though some of these principles were to be found in the motets of polyphonic songs of the 13th and 14th centuries, the term fuga was not used until the 15th century, to designate either simple canons (polyphonic pieces defined by the similarity of voices replicating themselves after a certain time interval) or vocal compositions, such as those by Ockeghem, constructed 'on sequences of imitative expositions built on many different subjects' (A. Mellnäs).

Nonetheless, the fugue does not derive as much from these forms as from the ricercare (research), an instrumental form which emerged in 16th-century Italy and issues from the polyphonic motet, but which can be better distinguished in terms of the notion of contrapuntal development based on a freely devised theme. Becoming widespread throughout the 17th century in Spain, France and England and with the organists in the North of Germany, the ricercare was gradually modified. A new type of unity was also conferred on this form, characterized principally by a greater thematic concentration (multiple themes tended to give way to a single subject) and the successive entry of the voices. Composers who contributed to this evolution towards the stricter sense of the fugue include Frescobaldi, Sweelinck, Froberger, Pachelbel and Buxtehude.

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But the fugue culminated, undeniably, in the 18th century with J.S.Bach (1685-1750), in the diversity and the complexity of solutions he brought to the form and in the level of development to which he took it. On one hand, this resulted from the reliability of the tonal system, for the fugue is best able to integrate tonality into its structure by exploiting the different possible relationships between keys. (For tonality demands that, if the subject modulates from the tonic key to the dominant, the response must go from the dominant to the tonic. This rule means that the intervals which separate the first and last notes

of a subject and its response cannot be, in this case, identical, as they are alternately a fifth and a fourth — C-G, then G-C for example; due to this fact, the tonal fugue response generally brings to its subject a light melodic modification, called a mutation.)

The importance of the fugue for Bach goes far beyond the works in which he explicitly referred to it, for the fugue style, based on imitation, is virtually basic to his writing. Furthermore, Bach's mastery in this domain is so great that the definitions given of fugue are usually inseparable from his production.

According to this model, the fugue — or rather the 'academic fugue' as it is usually called — must respect an arrangement in four parts: exposition, development, recapitulation and coda (this last part optional). Consisting of the successive introduction of the subject and its answers, the exposition allows for the gradual expansion of the composition to all the voices of the fugue. The development is made up of a series of sections of actual development, which are interspersed with divertimenti, also called episodes. As a general rule, the development sections have their own particular tone, while the divertimenti act as modulations (transitions). The last part of the development is called the stretta; it is an exposition in which the vocal entries are so close together that the subject and its answers constantly overlap; an example of predilection for contrapuntal

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virtuosity, the stretta corresponds to the point of greatest tension in a fugue. The recapitulation, which presents the subject in the principal key for the last time, advances either towards the conclusion or towards a coda.

Beginning of the Fugue No. 10 showing the successive entry of three voices (I), an extract from Johann Sebastian Bach's

The Art of Fugue.

After Bach the fugue, was confined to Church music. It is mostly in the form of fugatos (fugal fragments) that the fugue is found in many classical and romantic works. While we find in Mozart very accomplished integrations of fugues, it was Beethoven, primarily, who revived the fugue within the framework of the classical style. Among the romantics, Liszt and Brahms, as well as Franck, used the form and increased the possibilities of modulation.

In the 20th century, the first movement of Bela Bartok's

Music for strings, percussion and celesta (1936) is one of the rare instances of a fugue constructed outside the traditional tonal range (oscillating between very distant keys). And Anton Webern, in the third movement of his Quartet opus 28 (1938), even created a fugue which obeyed the organizational principles of serial music.

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Answer the questions:

1.What does the fugue result from?

2.What is called the subject?

3.What is the function of a counter – subject?

4.Does the answer (or consequent) reproduce the subject (or antecedent) exactly?

5.Till when was not the term fugue used?

6.What composers contributed to the evolution of the form?

7.With whom and when did the fugue culminate?

8.What is called a mutation?

9.What are the parts of the academic fugue?

10.What corresponds to the point of greatest tension in a fugue?

11.In what form is the fugue found in many classical and romantic works?

12.What composers do you think about when we speak about a fugue?

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simplicity, uneasy, dislike, unforgettable, unforbidden, goodness, visualize, influential, hospitality, likeness, expressively, according, newly, timeless, dominating, domination, willingly, kindness, helpfully, engagement

Read and translate the text

An instrumental composition based on dialogue, or even opposition, (the Italian word concerto is derived from the Latin verb concertare which means to rival, but also to converse) between one or more instruments and the whole orchestra, the solo concerto evolved formally in parallel with the symphony, the symphonic poem, etc.

In the classical form, attributed to Mozart, it is split into three movements: the first a fast movement (allegro) in Sonata form, the second slow (andante or adagio) in the form of a lied or a theme and variations, and a third fast (allegro) most often in the form of a rondo.

By the time the concerto grosso disappeared (around 1760), the solo concerto became established. It had made a cautious appearance in musical history with Torelli (concerto a uno violino che concerta solo, 1698) and Albinoni (Sinfonie e Concerti a cinque, 1700).

But it was not really organized into three symmetrical movements ('fast-slow-fast') until the beginning of the 18th century (Vivaldi's Concerto for one violin from the 'Estro Armonico' 1712). A new musical form was thus born by the intervention of the violin which, at least until 1770-85, remained the most frequently used solo instrument. Other solo instruments, even in Vivaldi's time, had been put to use in 'dialogue' with the orchestra: the cello (Vivaldi), the viola (Telemann, Vivaldi), the flute (Vivaldi), the oboe (Albinoni, Handel), the horn (Telemann) and the bassoon (Vivaldi).

The concerto for keyboard and orchestra was inaugurated by J. S. Bach (the eight Concertos for harpsichord and strings,

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BWV 1052-1059, between 1728 and 1735). An important pioneering role was subsequently played by two of Bach's sons; Carl-Philipp Emanuel (1714—88), composer of about fifty concertos and Johann Christian (1735-82) who composed his four concertos opus 7 (1770) with the firm intention of emphasizing the tones of an instrument invented around 1710 which was becoming more and more popular: the piano.

J.Haydn left behind a dozen keyboard concertos (organ and harpsichord), four for the violin, two designed for the cello and about ten for various instruments (horn, trumpet, flute, oboe, etc.), but he does not seem to have found the solo concerto to be a form in which he could wholeheartedly involve himself. Mozart, on the other hand, exploited the dramatic possibilities brilliantly. His piano concertos are considered by many to be models of perfection; he also excels in the composition of concertos for violin and orchestra {Concertos No.3 in G major K.216 and JVo.5 in A major K.219) and imposes his know-how in the technically-difficult domain of concerto for wind instruments (Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra in B flat major K.191; Flute Concerto in G K.313, Oboe Concerto in C K.314, Horn Concerto JVo.2 in Eflat major K.417; Clarinet Concerto in A major K.622).

Before bringing the genre to its maximum potential (Concerto in Eflat major 'Emperor', opus 73), Beethoven transformed and softened the orchestral and pianistic construction of Mozart (Concerto No.4 in G major opus 58). He only composed one violin concerto (in D major opus 61), the kind of concerto which afterwards, with the exception of some authentic (Mendelssohn, Brahms) or spectacular (Tchaikovsky) successes, fell more and more into disuse. The masters of the 19th century seemed to concede more importance to the cello concerto, as seen in Schumann (Concerto in A minor opus 129), Lalo (Concerto in D minor), Saint-Saens (Concertos opus 33 and 119), Brahms

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