Elements of Educational Psychology (Иностранный язык в профессиональной сфере — психология). Учебное пособие

leading to success are discarded while those ones leading to success are established.

Learning by Insight. Some animals and all human beings learn in fewer trials. They use their sense along with motor activity. Learning by Observation is learning by insight, learning by perceiving the relationship on the scene and understanding the situation. After looking over the whole situation, the learner strives to make some sense out of it, and it gives him clues regarding the way he should proceed to solve the problem, the method he should pursue, and a general awareness of the consequences of performing an act. This type of learning is obviously more efficient for the learner consciously perceiving the relations, which this or that problem includes.

Theories of Learning

Woodworth does not favor its description as learning by observation, because insight implies some penetration into the true nature of things.

As to J.B. Watson’s theory of learning, it is supposed to be a modification and an extension of the trial and error learning theory.

Law of frequency and the law of recency are the two added elements to the theory of trial and error by E.L. Thorndike. The theory holds that when the organism is subjected to a new situation, it resorts to random activities among which the right one is picked up and the rest are eliminated in successive times. The following laws like law of readiness, law of exercise (use and disuse), the law of effect are the major ones in this theory.

The mathematical equation S – O – R = F (H & D) is explained as the stimulus (S), that affects the organism (O) and the response (R) depends upon (O) as well as (S). The S – O – R relationship is a function of a habit (H) and a drive (D).

B.F.Skinner’soperantconditioningistotallydifferentfromPavlov’s classical conditioning. The following things like shaping (generalization, chaining and habit competition), extinction, spontaneous recovery, concept of reinforcement etc. are prominent in this theory. Reinforcement can be of three types:

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•a positive reinforcer,

•a negative reinforcer,

•and a punisher.

A negative reinforcer is an unpleasant stimulus but a punisher is an opposing stimulus.

Gestalt theory of learning or insightful theory is an improved one which pertains to cognition or perception. The intellect of an organism catches a specific configuration or a pattern on a particular contact and learningisaffectedbyit.Thevariousconceptsinitarefigureandground, similarity,proximity,transpositionetc.Thistheoryhasthefollowingcharacteristic features — it is sudden, sharp and selective, it proceeds from helplessness to absolute mastery. The teaching-learning situation should be managed by the doctrines of the above theory. From the point of view ofthistheory,introduction,presentationandevaluationoflearningmaterials, motivation etc. should be made highly appealing to the learners.

KurtLewin’stopologicalorvectorpsychologydealswiththe field of learning. The new concept inherent in it is life space which in fact is the total sum of factors affecting the behavior of the organism at any moment. Lewin’s equation

B = F (P& E)

states that a behavior (B) is the function (F) of a psychological person (P) and his psychological environment (E).

According to Lewin, learning involves four categories of change, namely:

•a change in cognitive structure;

•a change in motivation;

•a change in ideology;

•a change in voluntary control or acquiring skills.

Kurt Lewin emphasizes upon congeniality of the environment where teaching is tied for bells results.

Tolman’s Sign Gestalt theory belongs to the purposive psychology which views that the act of behavior has its distinctive properties and distributed as irrespective of the underlying muscular, glandular and neural processes. He emphasizes that the purposive nature of all the learnings being governed by a number of variables.

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The independent variables include environmental stimuli (S), psychological drive (P), heredity (H), previous training (T) and maturity of age (A). So, behavior (B) in a function of all the above mentioned variables:

B = F (S. P. H. T.A.)

The dependent variables are all the observable behavioral changes that are caused by the independent variables.

There are also varieties of theories that are overlapping the concept of transfer of learning. The major theories are:

•the theory of formal discipline,

•the theory of identical or common elements,

•the theory of generalization,

•the theory of transposition.

The theory of formal discipline states that our view is composed of memory, imagination, reasoning, analysis, temperament etc. Learning is greatly affected by exercises of all these faculties of the mind. Transfer of skills and attributes is automatic when a particular faculty has been developed properly.

The theory of common elements suggests that transfer of learningtakesplacebetweenonetoanotherwhensomecommonalitiesexist betweenthetwotasksorsituations.AstoE.L.Thorndike,therearetwo very important factors that affect transfer of learning through common elements, one of which is the matter and the other is the method.

On the other hand, the generalization theory states that transfer of learning is possible only on the basis of generalization, not on identical elements. Generalization refers to the perception of the fact what is common in a number of situations.

Transposition theory upholds that learning becomes transferable when the learner is capable of comprehending the things properly and transposing the same in subsequent occasions. Transposition refers to the reproduction of things in the desired and deserved contexts.

Motivation in Learning

Motivation is the heart of learning, it is the condition, which increases the vigor of activity, it initiates and sustains behavior and it

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is the reason why we do what we do. A motive implies a need and the direction of behavior toward a goal.Without this desire to learn, no amount of inducement will have any effect. So, teachers should make pupils want to learn for a desire to learn. There is almost no limit what the teacher and the class can accomplish.

Some teachers use the fear of punishment to make children learn others ignore themaltogether.All these attitudesare fruitless. Successful teachers implant a desire in the minds of pupils to learn and accomplish what tasks they give them, they are able to create a motive for learning in them. Such teachers believe that in general, children like to learn and to be given the right kind of guidance and help will take to their work with zest.

Rewardsandpunishments arealsousedtomotivatelearning.Pressures of success and failure, promises of enjoyment and fear of disappointment are powerful motives. Rivalry and competition also provide the motivating power. But all of them may be over-employed to produce real anxiety. Every teacher knows how examinations cause tension and how fear of failure renders many pupils incapable of any effort. Every teacher will have his own device of achieving this.

But motivation is not only the teacher’s responsibility. It also dependsonhisneedsanddesires,hisinterestsandgoalsthepupilbringsto the school and it is his work.Ahungry, thirsty or half-sleepy child will not apply himself to any task. Grown-up boys and girls are often detracted by the opposite sex and cannot concentrate on their work.Apart from these drives the need for activity is urgent and has to be satisfied.

Summary

1.Learningisoneofthemajoritemsdealtwithpsychology.Learning is typically defined as modification of behavior through practice and training. The process of learning is affected by such factors as environment, motivation, health, emotions, maturation and aging.

2.A number of theories are found operative for the process of learning among which the prominent are:

• Classical conditioning by I.P. Pavlov,

• Operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner,

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•Trial and Error theory by E.L. Thorndike,

•Gestalt or Insightful theory by F.D. Kohler and Kurt Koffka,

•J.B. Watson’s theory of learning and etc.

It is suggested that for the best transfer of learning the individual should discover interrelationships for himself. He should be exposed to the diverse and multifaceted interrelationships and principles that can help draw generalizations.

Study questions and tasks

1.What is learning? State the principles and characteristics of learning.

2.What are the theories of learning? Name and describe the most prominent ones.

3.What are the schedules of reinforcement? Show the difference between the negative reinforcement and punishment.

4.What learning theory influences the present day higher education the most and why?

5.What is the concept of transfer of learning? Discuss different types of education.

6.What are the various factors that affect the transfer of learning or training?

7.What is the difference between the theory of generalization and the theory of transposition in transfer of learning?

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Chapter 11

Group Dynamics and Leadership

It is observed that the behavior of an individual undergoes considerable changes when he finds himself in a group. It means that there is a great difference between the personal behavior and the group behavior. So, it is essential to mould the group behavior of the individual in a desirable way, so that neither the group nor the individual who are mutually influential to each other, meet any awkward situation­.

The Meaning of the Group

A number of experts, both sociologists and psychologists, have defined a group in a variety of ways.

By Mills, a group is “the unit composed of two or more persons who come into contact for a specific purpose and consider the contact meaningful”.

According to Angell, “Agroup is constituted by a number of persons whose joint action expresses the policies of a directing a will”.

Sherif and Sherif regard a group as “a social unit consisting of a number of individuals who stand in role and status, relationship to one another, stabilized in some degree at the time and who possess a set of values or norms of their own, regulating their behavior, at last in matters of consequence to the group”.

H. Smith opines that a social group as a unit that “consists of plural number of separate organisms who have a collective perception of their unity and who have the ability to work together and acting in unitary manner towards their environment”.

McDavid’s definition of a group is : “A social, psychological group is an organized system of two or more individuals who are interrelated so hat the system performs some functions, has a standard set of role relationship among its members and a set of norms that regulate the function of the group and each of its members”.

Fielder states “By a group we generally mean a set of individuals whomshareacommonfate,thatiswhoareinterdependentinthe sense that an event which affects one member is likely to affect all”.

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Keeping in view the above definitions of a group, the following characteristics can be attributed:

Agroup involves a number of beings.

All the members of a group have a common end. There is a close relationship among the members.

The group is superior to all the individual members who are loyal to it.

The group is interdependent of the individuals. Every individual is having some identity in the group.

The group is having a leader who initiates, directs and controls the behavior of all members.

Types of Groups

Taking into account the nature of interactions among the members and the magnitude of belongingness shared by them, HerbertA. Thelen has classified various groups as follows:

Face to Face Group. The members of this kind of group meet at occasional but well specified time and place. Their interaction is face to face or direct. For example, a club, a reading room, a gymnasium etc.

Abstract Group. An undercurrent sense of belongingness binds the individuals in a group. For example, region, religion, nationality, public opinion etc.

Hang over Group. This type of group refers to an intimacy established by a member with some others in previous occasion. Such a group disseminates certain qualities in the individual which are either perpetuated or modified in subsequent contexts. The family is an example of such a group.

Group Dynamics

As we see, a group is a combination of forces where a contact interaction among them goes on. In other words, it can be said that a group is a dynamic organization. A group is a composition of various elements (both living and non-living) having intra elementary interactions, which intends to achieve a common objective. The personality

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and behavioral pattern of the members constituting a group undergo changes due to such interactions.Among the members of a group, sufficient coherence and consolidation influences and is influenced by the group being dependent of it.

Group dynamics is the partial or whole change of behavior though interaction in the group. Group dynamics is concerned with the structural and functional aspects that emerge out of group interactions.

An individual’s behavior undergoes remarkable changes in the group. Group dynamics is understood as the partial or whole change of behavior though interaction in the group, which is concerned with the structural and functional aspects.

Knowledge of group dynamics will help the teacher to understand the process of interaction among the learners. This will go a long way in providing better guidance for adjustment and creating a conductive social as well as emotional climate.

The Leadership

Anyindividualwhoheadsthegroupandactsonbehalfofthe group is called its leader. The remaining members follow him with respect and cordiality. According to their nature and functioning leaders are of four types. These are authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire and charismatic.

Authoritarian leaders are highly dominant and dictatorial in nature. They ignore other members’opinions.

Democratic leaders are cooperative, friendly and flexible in nature. They always take into account other members’ views and help them cordially. The teacher motivates pupils towards group activities. The individual pupils can contribute best of their potentialities to the common cause and feel proud of it.

Laissez-faire leadership allows complete freedom to the group. Such a leader always withdraws him from the group and hence is highly passive.This type of leadership involves complete autonomy to the group.The leader is highly passive, taking minimum initiatives for groupactivities.Thistypeofleadershipprovesfruitfulwherethe members of the group are well matured and developed. So, the teacher

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keeping in view the maturity and development level of his learners should select such a leadership.

Charismatic leaders drive the group activities by their stimulus values or idiosyncrasy. The usual and peculiar characteristics of these leaders do much in governance of the group. A style of leadership where the positive idiosyncrasy of the leader reigns supreme is called charismatic leadership. The leader’s personal peculiar characteristics play vital role in influencing the group activities. The members of the group are set aside by such a tendency of the leader, displaying loyalty to him. Among teachers, this style of leadership is very rare but one who endowed with it is highly capable of leading the classroom group effectively.

The Qualities of a Good Leader

A good leader is self-assertive, creative, intelligent, having emotional stability, having strong will power, capable of convincing other, thick-skinned to criticism, industrious etc.

A leader functions is a manager, coordinator, organizer, supervisor, administrator and friend, philosopher and guide in the croup, which he represents.

To give effective leadership to the group certain qualities should be inherent in the leadership. Although the nature of the group prefixes the qualities of its leader, some universal attributes should be retained by leaders of all categories.

1.Aleader is self-assertive, humble and accommodating.

2.He is creative, intelligent and manipulative.

3.Aleader is well aware of the group behavior and group psychology to a manageable extent.

4.He has sufficient control over his emotions.

5.He is clever and particular.

6.He is effective in convincing and molding others.

7.He has a strong will power and determination.

8.He is thick-skinned to criticism.

9.He is sincere, punctual and industrious.

10.He is a powerful organizer.

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For developing better leadership qualities in the learners, they should be made aware of their own assets and limitations, be exposed to various challenging situations, be allowed to get influenced by great leaders of history. The teacher should himself project as a leader of worth following.

Functions of the Leader

Kretch and Crutchfield have listed the following functions of a leader:

1.Theleaderisanexecutive;thatmeansthattheleaderassignsvarious duties and responsibilities to the different members of the group and sees that that properly done.

2.The leader chalks out plans and strategies by which the group could achieve its objectives.

3.The leader acts as a resource person and provides all types of assistance to the members as sought by them.

4.One of the important duties of the leader is to maintain harmony and amicability among the members of the group.

5.The leader acts as a model both in words and deeds for the group.

6.The leader represents the group as a whole.

Training for the Leadership

Alongwitheducation,provisionsshouldbemadeforahealthy developmentoftheleadershipqualitiesinthelearners.Propertrainingand stimulating environment can remarkably rear and nurture the leader­ ship talents. In this connection the following steps prove fruitful and cause thriving of efficient leaders.

The learner should be made aware of his assets and limitations. He should be exposed to challenging situations and encouraged to

overcome them.

He should be encouraged to read the life history of great leaders. Avariety of co-curricular activities should be allowed to be organ-

ized with the active participation of the learners.

The teacher himself should act as a very versatile leader before the learners who he will impress and encouraged in the same direction.

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